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A Palaeolithic handaxe with a broken distal end, discovered during the Ayvalık survey

Early humans may have walked from Türkiye to mainland Europe, new groundbreaking research suggests - Taylor & Francis Newsroom

A phrase much loved by journalists (and creationists) is “the history/science books will need to be re-written”. It’s a convenient bit of lazy journalistic rhetoric — but in this case, the book that actually needs to be re-written is the Bible.

The discovery in question concerns the migration of early Homo sapiens, who may have spread from the Levant across Asia Minor (modern-day Türkiye) and then into Greece via a northern Aegean land bridge, exposed when sea levels were much lower during the last Ice Age — between 115,000 and 11,700 years ago.

This new evidence challenges some existing models of early human migration routes. However, it represents only a refinement of the broader, well-established story of humanity’s dispersal out of Africa, not a challenge to it. What it does completely undermine, however, is the Biblical narrative claiming that all humans descended from a single, ahistorical couple created without ancestors some 6,000 to 10,000 years ago — followed by a supposed global “reset” just 4,000 years ago when a genocidal flood left only eight related survivors.

The evidence for this Ice Age land bridge comes from the recovery of 138 stone tools at ten sites within a 200 km² area around Ayvalık in north-west Türkiye, opposite the Greek island of Lesbos.

Background^ A New Pathway into Europe. For decades, the prevailing view of early Homo sapiens migration into Europe has centred on a long overland journey: out of Africa through the Levant, north through central or eastern Anatolia, across the Bosporus, then into the mountainous interior of the Balkans before eventually reaching Greece. This inland route would have been arduous and logistically demanding for small hunter-gatherer groups.

The discovery of a northern Aegean land bridge, exposed during glacial periods when sea levels were much lower, has prompted a significant refinement of that model. Rather than travelling through the interior of the Balkans first, migrating populations could have:

Followed the Levantine and western Anatolian coastlines,
Crossed the exposed Aegean land corridor from what is now Türkiye to northern Greece,
Then dispersed northwards and westwards into the Balkans from Greece.

This shifts Greece from being a distant endpoint at the end of a long journey to a gateway into Europe, offering a shorter and more accessible route. The Balkans remain part of the dispersal story, but as a region that was entered from the south rather than traversed first.

The findings are reported in a paper in the Journal of Island and Coastal Archaeology and summarised in a Taylor & Francis news release.

Early humans may have walked from Türkiye to mainland Europe, new groundbreaking research suggests
“Emotional and inspiring” archaeological discovery of Paleolithic tools uncovers a lost, prehistoric passing which may have made it possible to cross between the Ayvalık and Europe
Continuous landmasses, now submerged, may have made it possible for early humans to cross between present-day Türkiye and Europe, new, landmark research of this largely unexplored region reveals.

The findings, published today in the peer-reviewed Journal of Island and Coastal Archaeology, unveil a previously undocumented Paleolithic presence in Ayvalık and more importantly could redocument our species’ migration into the continent.

It has long been thought that Homo sapiens reached Europe primarily coming via the Balkans and the Levant, from Africa into the Middle East.

However, with this new discovery of 138 lithic artifacts at 10 sites, across a region of 200km², the suggestion is that long before its olive groves and seaside charm, the northeastern Aegean coast of Ayvalık (now Turkey) was in fact another route for early humans navigating a changing prehistoric world.

Our archaeological discovery has unveiled that this now-idyllic region once potentially offered a vital land bridge for human movement during the Pleistocene era—when sea levels dropped and the now-submerged landscape was briefly exposed. We are very excited and delighted with this discovery. These findings mark Ayvalık as a potential new frontier in the story of human evolution, placing it firmly on the map of human prehistory – opening up a new possibility for how early humans may have entered Europe. It feels like we are adding an entirely new page to the story of human dispersal. Our research raises exciting possibilities for future exploration, and we hope it emerges as a body of work that will shift the approach of Pleistocene archaeology for decades to come.

Dr Göknur Karahan, corresponding author.
Department of Archaeology-Prehistory
Hacettepe University
Ankara, Turkey.

How were these findings possible?

During the Ice Age, sea levels dropped by more than 100 meters, exposing vast coastal plains that are now under water. At that time, today’s islands and peninsulas of Ayvalık would have in fact been part of a continuous landmass, forming a natural bridge between Anatolia and Europe.

The tools found in this current discovery are right along the present-day coastline and mark evidence of people living and moving across these now-lost landscapes.

Factors like environmental processes and the depth of deposits have previously limited the ability to detect and preserve remains in Ayvalık.

In all these periods, the present-day islands and peninsulas of Ayvalık would have formed interior zones within an expansive terrestrial environment. These paleogeographic reconstructions underscore the importance of the region for understanding hominin dispersals across the northeastern Aegean during the Pleistocene.

Professor Kadriye Özçelik, co-author
Department of Prehistory
Ankara University
Ankara, Turkey.

What was found?

The region’s shifting geology and active coastlines in the North Aegean made preservation difficult and the number of items uncovered “limited”, however this research team managed to uncover Levallois technologies from various Paleolithic periods, as well as handaxes and cleavers.

Among the most significant finds include Levallois-style flake tools, sophisticated implements linked to the Middle Paleolithic Mousterian tradition – these are often associated with Neanderthals and early Homo sapiens.

These large cutting tools are among the most iconic artefacts of the Paleolithic and are instantly recognizable even today, so are a very important find. The presence of these objects in Ayvalık is particularly significant, as they provide direct evidence that the region was part of wider technological traditions shared across Africa, Asia, and Europe. It was a truly unforgettable moment for us. Holding the first tools in our hands was both emotional and inspiring. And each find from there on was a moment of excitement for the whole team. Holding these objects — after walking across landscapes where no one had ever documented Paleolithic remains before — was unforgettable.

Dr Göknur Karahan.

What does this discovery tell us about early humans?

The experts’ key argument hinges on the potential of Ayvalık as a dynamic site for interaction and exchange, facilitating early human movement between the Anatolia peninsula and Europe.

Exploring how Anatolia, with specific focus on Ayvalık, and Europe were linked during glacial sea-level low stands offers alternative pathways for how early humans moved around the region beyond dominantly emphasised northern mainland-centred routes.

Addressing a gap in the scholarship, the authors’ work provides a new foundation for examining resources and migration routes in which Ayvalık may have featured as part of a mobility corridor.

[The survey’s yield of tools demonstrates a] consistent use of Levallois technology and flake production… and a diversified toolkit, [whilst all artefacts together offer what the team state are] valuable insights into early human presence, raw material preferences, and technological variability. The findings paint a vivid picture of early human adaptation, innovation, and mobility along the Aegean. The results confirmed that Ayvalık – which had never before been studied for its Paleolithic potential – holds vital traces of early human activity.

Dr Göknur Karahan.

Incredible recoveries, hundreds of thousands of years later

As this was a survey (carried out across a two-week period in June 2022) rather than an excavation, the team could not be certain of what they would find when they set off. They knew from the region’s geology and paleogeography that there was potential. They explored – often muddy, (particularly in lowland basins and coastal plains) – sites by foot.

[What followed was a] discovery of such a diverse and well-preserved set of artefacts, which exceeded our expectations.

Dr Göknur Karahan.

Although these recovery efforts were not without challenges, the authors explore what both the challenges and findings reveal in the paper. They state: “The widespread, muddy cover was considered a limiting factor for the preservation and detectability of Paleolithic materials. However, despite these constraints, high-quality raw material sources, such as flint and chalcedony, were identified in multiple locations, including areas affected by alluvial deposition.”

Future potential

Ultimately the results underline Ayvalık’s potential as a long-term hominin habitat and a key area for understanding Paleolithic technological features in the eastern Aegean. While preliminary, the current findings underscore the region’s potential to contribute to broader debates on Aegean connectivity and technological evolution during the Pleistocene. Excitingly, the region between the North Aegean and the Anatolian mainland, may still hold valuable clues to early occupation despite the challenges posed by active geomorphological processes.

Dr Hande Bulut, first author
Department of Prehistory
Düzce University
Düzce, Turkey.

The team recommends future research uses a multidisciplinary approach to outline absolute dating, stratigraphic excavation, and paleoenvironmental reconstruction, which they describe as “essential to clarify the temporal depth and functional character of the Ayvalık assemblage”.

Publication:
Bulut, H., Karahan, G., & Özçelik, K. (2025).
Discovering the Paleolithic Ayvalık: A Strategic Crossroads in Early Human Dispersals Between Anatolia and Europe.
Journal of Island and Coastal Archaeology, 1–23. https://doi.org/10.1080/15564894.2025.2542777

Abstract
Located on the northeastern Aegean coast, Ayvalık was intermittently exposed as dry land during periods of lowered sea level in the Pleistocene, providing opportunities for early human occupation and mobility. This study explores the Paleolithic potential of Ayvalık, a region in western Anatolia that has remained largely unexamined in Pleistocene archaeology and presents initial findings. Surveys conducted in the region identified 138 lithic artifacts at 10 sites. The most extensive assemblage, attributed to the Middle Paleolithic based on diagnostic core reduction strategies, is dominated by systematic Levallois flaking that resembles technological traits of the Mousterian tradition. In contrast, only a small number of Lower Paleolithic tools, such as handaxes and cleavers, were identified. Upper and/or Epipaleolithic traces are represented by blade and bladelet technologies. Despite preservation challenges due to Ayvalık’s geology and dynamic coastal processes, these findings reveal a previously undocumented Paleolithic presence and establish Ayvalık as a promising locus for future research on early human dispersals in the northeastern Aegean.

Introduction
Situated in the northeastern Mediterranean, the Aegean holds a key geographical position between Africa, Europe, and Asia, serving as a crucial refuge and dispersal route for early human groups during different phases of the Pleistocene (Dennell, Martinón-Torres, and Bermúdez de Castro 2011). However, Paleolithic research in the region has long been overlooked, and only in recent years has interest increased in its Paleolithic potential.

Some of the most striking evidence of Paleolithic human occupation in the Aegean includes the Homo erectus cranial remains from Kocabaş (Denizli), which have been dated to at least 1.1 mya (Lebatard et al. 2014; Vialet et al. 2018). Associated lithic assemblages, although not found in direct stratigraphic connection, have been recovered from the broader Denizli Basin and reflect early core-flake (Mode 1) and Acheulean handaxe (Mode 2) technologies (Özçelik, Kartal, and Fındık 2016; Özçelik, Vialet, and Bulut 2017; Özçelik et al. 2020; Özçelik and Bulut 2021; Özçelik and Karahan 2023). Additional early finds include a flake from the Gediz terraces (1.2 Ma) (Maddy et al. 2015), the Acheulean site of Rodafnidia on Lesvos (470–160 kya) (Galanidou et al. 2016.1), and Marathousa 1 in the Megalopolis Basin (400–300 kya) (Panagopoulou et al. 2018.1). Collectively, these sites provide definitive evidence of hominin occupation in the region from approximately 1 million to 400,000 years ago. One of Turkey’s largest open-air Paleolithic sites, Sürmecik (Uşak) exemplifies the geological and archaeological richness of the region, with 86,246 lithic artifacts recovered from contexts sealed beneath approximately 10 m of alluvial deposits and 5 m of travertine layers (Karahan 2020.1; Karahan, Özçelik, and Taşkıran 2024; Taşkıran et al. 2021.1). Although the site has not yet been dated through absolute methods, the lithic assemblage—dominated by Lower and Middle Paleolithic techno-typological traditions, including handaxes, pebble core tools, Levallois flaking, and bifacial leaf-shaped points—provides strong evidence for its Paleolithic attribution. The exceptional depth of the deposit, while contributing to the preservation of the assemblage, has also limited stratigraphic clarity and impeded the retrieval of datable materials. This situation reflects both the region’s complex geological processes and the unfortunate challenge of establishing a more precise chronology.

Although such discoveries highlight the Paleolithic potential of the region, the limited preservation of Pleistocene evidence in the Aegean is closely linked to environmental and geomorphological processes. Active geomorphological dynamics have negatively impacted the preservation and detectability of Lower and Middle Pleistocene archaeological remains (Tourloukis 2010). Therefore, the absence of evidence should not be interpreted as “evidence of absence” but rather as a reflection of environmental processes and the inherently low density of Paleolithic material in the region, even in areas that have been the focus of increasingly systematic research efforts over the past decade. Recent studies investigating these dynamics have reshaped our understanding of Aegean Paleolithic archaeology. What once appeared as isolated finds now reveals the region’s significant potential.

Building on recent methodological and paleoenvironmental advances, Aegean Paleolithic research has increasingly moved beyond a traditionally mainland-centered focus toward the exploration of submerged landscapes and island regions. Such a shift challenges the previously dominant emphasis on the Marmara-Thrace corridor and instead highlights the Aegean and its islands as a dynamic zone of interaction that facilitated early human movement between Anatolia and Europe, in both directions (Carter et al. 2019; Galanidou 2014.1). By linking Anatolia and Europe during glacial sea-level low stands, the Aegean region offered alternative pathways for hominin dispersals beyond the traditionally emphasized northern mainland-centered routes (Sakellariou and Galanidou 2016.2, 2017.1). This dynamic setting was especially pronounced in the northern Aegean, where land exposure during glacial periods created direct links between Anatolia .3and southeastern Europe, as evidenced by sites such as Rodafnidia on the island of Lesvos (Galanidou et al. 2016.1), which would have been connected to the mainland during those low sea-level stands. Lesbos, along with neighboring islands such as Limnos and Gökçeada, constituted a key segment of what has been termed the North Aegean Island Bridge, an emergent land corridor that connected Anatolia with mainland Greece during glacial low stands (see Geological Settings) (Sakellariou and Galanidou 2017.1, 342–43). However, due to submergence, the identification of potential Paleolithic sites in these areas has been significantly constrained (Tourloukis 2010).

Located at the eastern end of the North Aegean system, the Çanakkale–Balıkesir coastline or Edremit Gulf forms a critical interface between the submerged island corridors and the Anatolian mainland (Karahan 2024.1). While research along the Çanakkale coastline of the Edremit Gulf has revealed significant Paleolithic potential (Bulut et al. 2022, 2024.2; Karahan and Arslan 2023.1, 2025; Karahan, Bulut, et al. 2024.2), areas to the southeast, such as Ayvalık on the Balıkesir coast, remain largely unexplored. Ayvalık’s predominantly alluvial-covered and subsiding shoreline may obscure or deeply bury traces of early human presence, making their detection through surveys especially challenging. However, these limitations do not imply that the region should be disregarded; rather, Ayvalık’s geological structure, shifting coastline, and traces of Pleistocene land connections provide a new perspective for understanding its Paleolithic occupations. This study focuses on Ayvalık, an archaeologically understudied region forming a transitional zone between the North Aegean and the Anatolian mainland, and which may still hold valuable clues to early occupation despite the challenges posed by active geomorphological processes.

Geographical settings
Ayvalık forms the southern coastal boundary of the Edremit Gulf and is located within the province of Balıkesir. It is bordered by Gömeç to the north, Dikili and Bergama to the south, and the island of Lesbos (Greece) to the west. Geologically and paleogeographically, the region exhibits a highly diverse and complex structure. As part of the northern Aegean, Ayvalık has been shaped by active tectonic processes, volcanic activity, and sea-level fluctuations from the Neogene period (23–2.6 Mya) to the present (Bozkurt 2001).

Ayvalık’s fundamental geological structure is defined by the horst and graben systems characteristic of the Aegean region, which formed because of the north-south extensional tectonics of the continental crust (Saatçılar et al. 1999; Yaltırak et al. 2012). Evidence of volcanic activity from the Late Miocene and Pliocene (approximately 5–10 Mya) is particularly visible in the tuff and lava flows around Ayvalık (Ercan et al. 1986). These processes have contributed to the widespread presence of volcanic rocks such as basalt, andesite, and tuff. Additionally, the region’s bedrock consists of Paleozoic metamorphic rocks, including gneiss, schist, and marble, while Neogene deposits of sandstone, mudstone, and limestone further enrich Ayvalık’s geological diversity.

The region displays a variety of geomorphological features, including coastal and island systems, terrestrial uplands, lagoons, dune fields, and coastal cliffs. One of Ayvalık’s most notable coastal characteristics is its Dalmatian-type coastline, a geomorphological configuration formed by the submergence of fluvial valleys aligned parallel to the coast, due to postglacial sea-level rise. This transgressive process isolated the former ridges between valleys, transforming them into elongated islands and resulting in the formation of the Ayvalık Archipelago. The archipelago comprises 22 islands, the largest of which are Cunda (Alibey) Island and Lale Island, both of which are today connected to the mainland by artificial causeways (Atalay and Mortan 2017.2). These geomorphological developments not only shaped the region’s current topography but also have significant implications for reconstructing Pleistocene coastal environments and potential Paleolithic land use.

Ayvalık is also distinguished by its lagoons, the most well-known of which is Tuz Gölü (Salt Lake) in the south. These natural formations offer valuable paleogeographic data for understanding the effects of sea-level changes (Sakellariou and Galanidou 2016.2, 2017.1). Dunes and beaches shaped by wind and wave action reflect the region’s coastal dynamics. Sarımsaklı Beach, for instance, serves as a prime example of a sedimentary accumulation zone influenced by marine and eolian processes. The coastal landscape also features wave-cut cliffs and low-gradient shorelines formed by alluvial deposits, further contributing to Ayvalık’s geomorphological diversity.

In addition to its present-day geomorphological diversity, sea-level fluctuations throughout the Pleistocene significantly altered the landscape of the North Aegean, including the Ayvalık region. During glacial stages such as MIS 12, 10, and 8 (approximately 478,000–243,000 years ago), sea levels dropped by more than 100 m, resulting in the exposure of the North Aegean Shelf and the formation of the so-called North Aegean Island Bridge (Lykousis 2009; Sakellariou and Galanidou 2016.2, 2017.1). In these phases, islands such as Lesbos, Limnos, and Gökçeada were connected to both the Anatolian mainland and the Greek coast, creating continuous landmasses ideal for terrestrial movement. During MIS 6 (191–130 kya), the land bridge likely persisted, with Lesbos plausibly linked to the Ayvalık coastline. This period coincides with Acheulean hominin activity at Rodafnidia (Galanidou et al. 2016.1), suggesting that Ayvalık may have been situated within a broader ecological and mobility corridor. The Last Glacial Maximum (MIS 2, ∼26–19 kya) saw sea levels reach their lowest point (∼120 m below present), exposing vast coastal plains, freshwater resources, and potential migration routes (Lykousis 2009). In all these periods, the present-day islands and peninsulas of Ayvalık would have formed interior zones within an expansive terrestrial environment. These paleogeographic reconstructions underscore the importance of the region for understanding hominin dispersals across the northeastern Aegean during the Pleistocene.

Beyond paleogeographic transformations caused by sea-level fluctuations, Ayvalık’s geological background has had a lasting impact on the region’s archaeological record. The widespread presence of volcanic rocks such as basalt and andesite, alongside sedimentary materials like flint and chalcedony, provided abundant raw materials for Paleolithic production. However, the extensive alluvial cover across much of the region has posed significant challenges for detecting Paleolithic artifacts. Archaeological research in Ayvalık, as in much of the Anatolian Aegean coast, has traditionally focused on Classical and Hellenistic remains, and the region’s potential for prehistoric human occupation was long overlooked. To address this long-standing gap, our recent survey systematically documented lithic artifacts from multiple locations in Ayvalık, revealing new evidence of Paleolithic presence in the region.

Figure 1. Paleolithic findspots identified during the Ayvalık survey: 1. Şirinkent I, 2. Sahilkent, 3. Şirinkent II, 4. Şirinkent III, 5. Armutçuk, 6. Atatürk Koruluğu, 7. Eski Altınova Yolu, 8. Hakkı Bey Yarımadası, 9. Tuz Gölü I, 10. Tuz Gölü II. A detailed bathymetric-topographic map of the Edremit Bay region, derived from the Global Multi-Resolution Topography (GMRT) Grid v4.3.1 and visualized using GeoMapApp v3.7.5. The inset map provides a broader regional context, while the color gradient highlights bathymetric variation, emphasizing the −20 m to −80 m depth zones. This visualization reflects approximate sea-level fluctuations and submerged paleolandscapes during lower sea-level stands; no explicit contouring or manual digitization was applied.

Figure 2. General view of selected Paleolithic findspots identified during the Ayvalık survey. Atatürk Koruluğu (A); Eski Altınova Yolu (B); Tuz Gölü II (C); Tuz Gölü I (D); Sahilkent (E); Hakkı Bey Yarımadası (F). The images reflect the diverse environmental settings of the survey area, including pine forests, olive groves, and coastal scrublands.

Figure 3. Large cutting tools. A handaxe from Şirinkent I (A); A cleaver from Şirinkent I (B); Handaxes with broken distal ends from Sahilkent (C and D).

Figure 4.Cores. Levallois cores from Sahilkent (A and B); Levallois core from Şirinkent II (C).

Figure 5. Cores. Levallois cores from Şirinkent II (A–C); Eski Altınova Yolu (D); Atatürk Koruluğu (E).

Figure 6. Blanks and retouched tools. Sahilkent (A); Şirinkent II (B–F); Armutçuk (G–I); Atatürk Koruluğu (J and K); Eski Altınova Yolu (L–N).

Figure 7. Lithic assemblages attributed to the Upper Paleolithic or Epipaleolithic. Hakkı Bey Yarımadası (A), Tuz Gölü II (B–D); Şirinkent III (E–J).

Bulut, H., Karahan, G., & Özçelik, K. (2025).
Discovering the Paleolithic Ayvalık: A Strategic Crossroads in Early Human Dispersals Between Anatolia and Europe.
Journal of Island and Coastal Archaeology, 1–23. https://doi.org/10.1080/15564894.2025.2542777

Copyright: © 2025 The authors.
Published by Taylor & Francis (Informa UK Limited). Open access.
Reprinted under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International license (CC BY 4.0)

This discovery is another example of how new archaeological evidence can refine our understanding of humanity’s deep past without overturning the core scientific consensus. The broad outlines of the story remain unchanged: *Homo sapiens* evolved in Africa, dispersed through the Levant, and gradually spread across Eurasia. What has changed is our understanding of the **route** they took into Europe — a route that appears to have been simpler, shorter and more accessible than once believed.

It also highlights how landscapes can change dramatically over geological timescales. What is now open sea was once dry land, offering a natural corridor to early humans moving into new territories. As such, this evidence doesn’t merely fill a gap on a map; it enriches our understanding of the adaptability and resilience of our ancestors.

And crucially, it stands in stark contrast to the simplistic, ahistorical tales in religious texts. The real story of human origins is written not in mythology, but in stone tools, shifting coastlines, and the migrations of our species across a changing planet — a story that grows more detailed and fascinating with every discovery.

If any books need to be rewritten as a result of this discovery, it's not the books on ancient human history, but the books of mythology that are made to appear more and more like imaginative camp-fire tales from the fearful infancy of our species which the evidence shows could scarcely have been more wrong.

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