Refuting Creationism - How Dogs Spread Across The Americas - Then Survived The Legendary Biblical Global Flood

Chihuahua dog in Mexico.

Credit: Urvashi9, Getty Images

Figure 1. Distribution of archaeological samples analysed in this study.

Manin, Aurélie, et al (2025)

Ancient DNA reveals new clues about the incredible journey of dogs in the Americas | University of Oxford

According to the Bible, all living things outside Noah’s Ark were destroyed once Noah, his family, and his chosen animals were safely sealed inside (Genesis 7:4). This supposedly happened around 4,000 years ago, according to the biblical narrative — which creationists firmly believe to be inerrant history.

The snag is, the evidence simply doesn’t support that timeline—or a global flood involving mass extinction by drowning. Not only would such a flood have left a distinctive global deposit of sediment, containing a chaotic mix of ancient and modern animal and plant species from disconnected continents, but it would also have erased all archaeological traces of earlier civilisations and palaeontological evidence of past life. In effect, it would have reset the clocks of both archaeology and palaeontology to start around 4,000 years ago.

Unfortunately for biblical literalists, that’s not what we see. The predicted tell-tale layer of silt is conspicuously absent. Instead, both archaeology and palaeontology reveal a pattern of uninterrupted occupation of the planet by animals and humans stretching back tens of thousands—and, in the case of animal and plant species, hundreds of millions—of years. For anatomically modern humans, there is a consistent archaeological record documenting their spread across all land masses (except Antarctica), during which they domesticated animals such as dogs, which migrated alongside them.

One example of this pattern — the migration of domestic dogs with humans into the Americas between 7,000 and 5,000 years ago — has just been published in Proceedings of the Royal Society B, by an international team of scientists led by Dr Aurélie Manin from the School of Archaeology at the University of Oxford. They have shown that all South American dogs prior to the arrival of Europeans, trace their ancestry back to a single female. One strain — the Mexican Chihuahua - still shows evidence of that ancestry.

Refuting Creationism - A 600-Million-Year-Old Common Ancestor of Cnidarians and Bilaterians.

Adult polyp of the sea anemone Nematostella vectensis.

Grigory Genikhovich

Bodybuilding in Ancient Times: How the Sea Anemone Got Its Back

Childish creationist claims of a young Earth, the spontaneous magical generation of all living organisms without ancestry, and the supposed absence of evidence for the evolution of life from a common ancestor have taken another blow with the publication of compelling new research that refutes these basic creationist dogmas.

An open access paper published in Science Advances describes a candidate ancestral mechanism for establishing bilaterality — symmetry along a central axis — in both bilaterians (animals with bilateral symmetry) and the sea anemone Nematostella. The study, conducted by four researchers from the Department of Neurosciences and Developmental Biology at the University of Vienna, provides crucial insights into the deep evolutionary origins of body plan organisation.

It is also clear from both the paper and the researchers' explanation in a University of Vienna press release that they regard the Theory of Evolution as essential to interpreting their findings. Their discovery fits squarely within the evolutionary framework and aligns with the established timeline for the diversification of animal life from a common ancestor.

What Is Bilateral Symmetry? Bilateral symmetry is a body plan in which an organism can be divided into roughly mirror-image halves along a single plane—from head to tail. Most animals, including humans, insects, and vertebrates, display this type of symmetry.

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Why Is It Evolutionarily Significant?

• Directional Movement: Bilateral symmetry enables streamlined, forward-facing movement—ideal for seeking food, mates, and avoiding danger.
• Cephalisation: This symmetry is often associated with the development of a head region where sensory organs and the brain concentrate—an evolutionary advantage for processing information efficiently.
• Complexity and Specialisation: It allowed for greater internal organisation and the evolution of specialised body systems (e.g., digestive, nervous, and circulatory).

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Evolutionary Milestone

Bilateral symmetry is thought to have evolved over 600 million years ago in a common ancestor of all bilaterians. This innovation marked a major turning point in the history of life, leading to the vast diversity of animal forms we see today.

Bodybuilding in Ancient Times: How the Sea Anemone Got Its Back

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New insights into the evolution of the back-belly-axis.

A new study from the University of Vienna reveals that sea anemones use a molecular mechanism known from bilaterian animals to form their back-to-belly body axis. This mechanism ("BMP shuttling") enables cells to organize themselves during development by interpreting signaling gradients. The findings, published in Science Advances, suggest that this system evolved much earlier than previously assumed and was already present in the common ancestor of cnidarians and bilaterians.

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Most animals exhibit bilateral symmetry—a body plan with a head and tail, a back and belly, and left and right sides. This body organization characterizes the vast group known as Bilateria, which includes animals as diverse as vertebrates, insects, molluscs and worms. In contrast, cnidarians, such as jellyfish and sea anemones, are traditionally described as radially symmetric, and indeed jellyfish are. However, the situation is different is the sea anemones: despite superficial radiality, they are bilaterally symmetric – first at the level of gene expression in the embryo and later also anatomically as adults. This raises a fundamental evolutionary question: did bilateral symmetry arise in the common ancestor of Bilateria and Cnidaria, or did it evolve independently in multiple animal lineages? Researchers at the University of Vienna have addressed this question by investigating whether a key developmental mechanism called BMP shuttling is already present in cnidarians.

Shuttling for development

In bilaterian animals, the back-to-belly axis is patterned by a signaling system involving Bone Morphogenetic Proteins (BMPs) and their inhibitor Chordin. BMPs act as molecular messengers, telling embryonic cells where they are and what kind of tissue they should become. In bilaterian embryos, Chordin binds BMPs and blocks their activity in a process called "local Inhibition". At the same time, in some but not all bilaterian embryonic models, Chordin can also transport bound BMPs to other regions in the embryo, where they are released again – a mechanism known as "BMP shuttling". Animals as evolutionary distant as sea urchins, flies and frogs use BMP shuttling, however, until now it was unclear whether they all evolved shuttling independently or inherited it from their last common ancestor some 600 million years ago. Both, local inhibition and BMP shuttling, create a gradient of BMP activity across the embryo. Cells in the early embryo detect this gradient and adopt different fates depending on BMP levels. For example, in vertebrates, the central nervous system forms where BMP signaling is lowest, kidneys will develop at intermediate BMP signaling levels, and the skin of the belly will form in the area of maximum BMP signaling. This way, the body's layout from back to belly is established. To find out whether BMP shuttling by Chordin represents an ancestral mechanism for patterning the back to belly axis, the researchers had to look at bilaterally symmetric animals outside Bilateria – the sea anemones.

An Ancient Blueprint

To test whether sea anemones use Chordin as a local inhibitor or as a shuttle, the researchers first blocked Chordin production in the embryos of the model sea anemone Nematostella vectensis. In Nematostella, unlike in Bilateria, BMP signaling requires the presence of Chordin, so, without Chordin, BMP signaling ceased and the formation of the second body axis failed. Chordin was then reintroduced into a small part of the embryo to see if it could restore axis formation. BMP signaling resumed—but it was unclear whether this was because Chordin simply blocked BMPs locally, allowing a gradient to form from existing BMP sources, or because it actively transported BMPs to distant parts of the embryo, shaping the gradient more directly. To answer this, two versions of Chordin were tested—one membrane-bound and immobile, the other diffusible. If Chordin acted as a local inhibitor, both, the immobile and the diffusible Chordin would restore BMP signaling on the side of the embryo opposite to the Chordin producing cells. However, only diffusible Chordin can act as a BMP shuttle. The results were clear: Only the diffusible form was able to restore BMP signaling at a distance from its source, demonstrating that Chordin acts as a BMP shuttle in sea anemones—just as it does in flies and frogs.

A shared strategy across over 600 million years of evolution?

The presence of BMP shuttling in both cnidarians and bilaterians suggests that this molecular mechanism predates their evolutionary divergence some 600-700 million years ago.

Not all Bilateria use Chordin-mediated BMP shuttling, for example, frogs do, but fish don't, however, shuttling seems to pop up over and over again in very distantly related animals making it a good candidate for an ancestral patterning mechanism. The fact that not only bilaterians but also sea anemones use shuttling to shape their body axes, tells us that this mechanism is incredibly ancient. It opens up exciting possibilities for rethinking how body plans evolved in early animals.

Dr. David Mörsdorf, first author
Department of Neurosciences and Developmental Biology
University of Vienna, Vienna, Austria.

We might never be able to exclude the possibility that bilaterians and bilaterally symmetric cnidarians evolved their bilateral body plans independently. However, if the last common ancestor of Cnidaria and Bilateria was a bilaterally symmetric animal, chances are that it used Chordin to shuttle BMPs to make its back-to-belly axis. Our new study showed that.

Grigory Genikhovich, senior author.
Department of Neurosciences and Developmental Biology
University of Vienna, Vienna, Austria

Publication:

David Mörsdorf, Maria Mandela Prünster, Paul Knabl, Grigory Genikhovich.
Chordin-mediated BMP shuttling patterns the secondary body axis in a cnidarian.
Science Advances (2025) 11(24). DOI: 10.1126/sciadv.adu6347

Abstract Bone morphogenetic protein (BMP) signaling patterns secondary body axes throughout Bilateria and in the bilaterally symmetric corals and sea anemones. Chordin-mediated “shuttling” of BMP ligands is responsible for the BMP signaling gradient formation in many bilaterians and, possibly, also in the sea anemone Nematostella, making BMP shuttling a candidate ancestral mechanism for generating bilaterality. However, Nematostella Chordin might be a local inhibitor of BMP rather than a shuttle. To choose between these options, we tested whether extracellular mobility of Chordin, a hallmark of shuttling but dispensable for local inhibition, is required for patterning in Nematostella. By generating localized Chordin sources in the Chordin morphant background, we showed that mobile Chordin is necessary and sufficient to establish a peak of BMP signaling opposite to Chordin source. These results provide evidence for BMP shuttling in a bilaterally symmetric cnidarian and suggest that BMP shuttling may have been functional in the potentially bilaterally symmetric cnidarian-bilaterian ancestor.

INTRODUCTION
Bone morphogenetic protein (BMP) signaling acts in secondary body axis patterning across Bilateria, and its functions as morphogen have been studied in diverse animal species (1, 2). The mechanisms of the BMP-dependent axial patterning are similar between arthropods and vertebrates, indicative of the shared origin of the secondary, dorsoventral axis in protostome and deuterostome Bilateria, a notion strengthened once broader phylogenetic sampling became available (2–7). Intriguingly, the same mechanisms appear to regulate the secondary axis patterning in the bilaterally symmetric cnidarian Nematostella vectensis, indicating that a BMP-dependent secondary body axis may have evolved before the evolutionary split of Cnidaria and Bilateria [(8, 9), reviewed in (1, 10)]. However, a scenario in which BMP-mediated secondary axes evolved convergently in Bilateria and bilaterally symmetric Cnidaria is also possible (2).

BMPs are secreted signaling proteins of the transforming growth factor–β superfamily frequently acting as heterodimers (11–13). Signaling through the BMP receptor complex (Fig. 1A) results in phosphorylation and nuclear accumulation of the transcriptional effector SMAD1/5, which regulates the expression of many crucial developmental transcription factors and signaling pathway components [(14–18), reviewed in (19, 20)]. BMP signaling is tightly controlled by a plethora of intracellular (14, 21) and extracellular regulators (22–29) of which Chordin (= short gastrulation in insects) is, arguably, the most famous one. Like many other secreted BMP antagonists, Chordin binds BMP ligands, blocks the interaction with their receptor, and thereby inhibits BMP signaling (30). However, Chordin can also have pro-BMP effects and promotes long-range activation of BMP signaling in Drosophila, Xenopus, sea urchins, and in the sea anemone Nematostella (7, 31–34). The phylogenetic distribution of Chordin and two central BMP ligands, BMP2/4 and BMP5-8, and their importance for the secondary axis patterning across phyla suggests that, during early animal evolution, these molecules may have represented the minimum requirement for the formation of the bilaterally symmetric body plan (2, 10). However, to evaluate such a possibility, we need to understand the “mode of action” of BMPs and Chordin outside Bilateria, and our model, the sea anemone Nematostella, allows exactly that.

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Fig. 1. Possible modes of action of BMP signaling during axial patterning in Nematostella.

(A) BMP signaling pathway. BMP dimers bind the heterotetrameric receptor complex, resulting in the phosphorylation of SMAD1/5. pSMAD1/5 forms a complex with the Co-Smad SMAD4, which regulates transcription in the nucleus. Chordin binds BMPs preventing them from activating the receptor complex. Metalloproteases like Tolloid and BMP-1 cleave Chordin and release BMP ligands from the inhibitory complex in Bilateria. (B) Expression domains of BMPs and BMP antagonists in an early Nematostella larva. Oral view corresponds to the optical section indicated with grey dashed line on the lateral view. Pink circles show the nuclear pSMAD1/5 gradient. (C) The shuttling model suggests that in Nematostella, a mobile BMP-Chordin complex transports BMPs through the embryo. Receptor binding is inhibited in cells close to the Chordin source due to high concentrations of Chordin. On the opposite side of the directive axis, BMPs bind their receptors and activate signaling upon release from Chordin. Tolloid might be involved in the cleavage of Chordin and release of BMPs from the complex with Chordin also in Nematostella. (D) In the local inhibition model, Nematostella Chordin acts locally to inhibit BMP signaling and promote the production of BMP2/4 and BMP5-8 mRNA. Chordin mobility is not required for asymmetric BMP signaling.

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BMP signaling in Nematostella becomes detectable during early gastrula stage in a radially symmetric domain: The phosphorylated form of the BMP signaling effector SMAD1/5 (pSMAD1/5) is detected in the nuclei around the blastopore (14, 35). Shortly after the onset of BMP activity, the radial symmetry of the embryo breaks, establishing the secondary, “directive” body axis with minimum BMP signaling intensity detectable on the side of BMP2/4, BMP5-8, and Chordin expression and maximum BMP signaling on the side opposite to it (Fig. 1B) (14, 34, 35). The symmetry break occurs despite the fact that mRNAs of the type I BMP receptors Alk2 and Alk3/6 and the type II receptor BMPRII are maternally deposited (36) and remain weakly and ubiquitously expressed in the embryo (fig. S1) gradually developing a slight bias toward the “high pSMAD1/5” side of the directive axis by early planula stage (14). BMP2/4 and BMP5-8 are co-expressed in the late gastrula/early planula, and both these ligands are crucial for BMP signaling and directive axis patterning because knockdown of either ligand abolishes pSMAD1/5 immunoreactivity and completely radializes the embryo (34). Individual knockdowns of either BMP2/4 or BMP5-8 result in a strong up-regulation of transcription of both BMP2/4 and BMP5-8 in a radially symmetric domain showing that both these genes are negatively controlled by BMP signaling. Despite transcriptional up-regulation of BMP2/4 in BMP5-8 morphants and BMP5-8 in the BMP2/4 morphants, no nuclear pSMAD1/5 is observed in such embryos (9, 34, 35), suggesting that BMP2/4 and BMP5-8 signal as an obligate heterodimer during axial patterning in Nematostella.

The “core” BMPs, BMP2/4 and BMP5-8, are not the only BMP ligands present in the embryo at this stage. GDF5-like (GDF5L) is a BMP ligand expressed on the side of strong BMP signaling (Fig. 1B). GDF5L expression is abolished in the absence of BMP2/4 and BMP5-8, and the role of GDF5L appears to be in steepening the pSMAD1/5 gradient making it a “modulator” BMP (14, 34, 37). The BMP signaling gradient is stable over many (>24) hours during which it patterns the directive axis (9, 14, 34, 35, 37). Considering the short half-life of phosphorylated SMAD1/5 reported in other systems (15, 21), this indicates that long-range transport (~100 μm) of BMP2/4 and BMP5-8 and constant receptor complex activation is necessary to maintain BMP signaling. How it exactly happens that the core BMP ligands, BMP2/4 and BMP5-8, are expressed on one side of the embryo and the peak of BMP signaling activity is on the opposite side is currently unknown.

One possible explanation involves Chordin-mediated shuttling of BMP ligands, described in the dorsoventral patterning in Drosophila and Xenopus (7, 34, 38). In this model, Chordin inhibits BMP function locally, close to the Chordin source cells, but promotes long-range BMP signaling by forming a mobile complex with the BMP dimer, which is released once Chordin is cleaved by the metalloprotease Tolloid. The probability that this BMP dimer will bind its receptors rather than another, yet uncleaved Chordin increases with the distance to the Chordin source (Fig. 1C). In Nematostella, the shuttling model was proposed when we found that, unlike in all bilaterian models studied thus far, depletion of Chordin results in the loss of BMP signaling rather than in its enhancement (34). However, given that, in Nematostella, BMP signaling indirectly represses the transcription of the core BMPs, BMP2/4 and BMP5-8, and activates the transcription of the modulator BMP, GDF5-like (14), an alternative explanation is also possible: In this “local inhibition” scenario, Chordin locally represses BMP signaling enabling BMP2/4 and BMP5-8 production. BMP2/4 and BMP5-8 diffuse into the area of low or no Chordin (i.e., to the GDF5-like side of the directive axis) and bind the receptors there. In this scenario, Chordin knockdown results in a transient de-repression of the BMP2/4/BMP5-8–mediated signaling, which, in turn, leads to the repression of the BMP2/4 and BMP5-8 transcription. Because, in the absence of BMP2/4 and BMP5-8, GDF5-like expression is also lost (9), we may end in a situation when no BMP ligands are produced and no BMP signaling takes place, as it is the case in the Chordin morphant (9, 34). This local inhibition model, in which Chordin acts exclusively as a local repressor of BMP signaling (Fig. 1D), is similar to the situation in zebrafish, where extracellular mobility of Chordin is not required (39–41). Here, we address the role of Chordin in the BMP-dependent axial patterning in the sea anemone Nematostella and test these two alternative models.

David Mörsdorf, Maria Mandela Prünster, Paul Knabl, Grigory Genikhovich.
Chordin-mediated BMP shuttling patterns the secondary body axis in a cnidarian.
Science Advances (2025) 11(24). DOI: 10.1126/sciadv.adu6347

Copyright: © 2025 The authors.
Published by the American Association for the Advancement of Science. Open access.
Reprinted under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International license (CC BY 4.0)

This discovery poses a significant problem for creationist claims because it provides clear molecular and developmental evidence for a shared evolutionary origin between animals with bilateral symmetry and simpler organisms like sea anemones, which lack such symmetry as adults. The fact that the genetic and developmental mechanisms for establishing a "back" or body axis predate the emergence of bilaterally symmetrical animals suggests that these features evolved gradually through modification of existing biological systems—not through sudden, miraculous creation.

Creationism relies on the assertion that complex body plans appeared abruptly, fully formed, and without evolutionary precursors. However, the findings in this study directly contradict that idea. They show that the genetic toolkit required for bilateral body structures was already present in the common ancestor of cnidarians (like sea anemones) and bilaterians and was likely repurposed and elaborated upon over millions of years. This is exactly what evolutionary theory predicts.

Moreover, the study aligns neatly with the established evolutionary timeline based on genetics, developmental biology, and the fossil record. There is no need to invoke supernatural causes or to assume that animals were created independently and without shared ancestry. Instead, the evidence points to deep continuity in the genetic architecture of life—a hallmark of common descent and a major blow to the isolated, one-off acts of creation claimed by young-Earth and Intelligent Design creationists alike.

Unintelligent Designer News - Designed a Cure For COVID-19; Gave It To LLamas - Or Is It Malevolence?

How the single domain antibody locks onto the spike protein’s base

Researchers identify new antibodies against current and future coronaviruses | VIB.BE - Home

Hot on the heels of the news that the putative intelligent designer behind creationism apparently devised a method to prevent the spread of cancer cells through the body—then handed it to the sea cucumber, a group of species not especially prone to cancer—comes another remarkable revelation.

It now appears that this same designer, if we accept the claims of ID creationists, has also developed a highly effective mechanism for disabling the SARS-CoV-2 virus that causes COVID-19. And once again, rather than bestowing this gift upon humans, the species most affected by the virus, the designer gave it to llamas — creatures not exactly known for their vulnerability to coronaviruses.

The mechanism in question involves relatively simple molecules known as single-domain antibodies, or VHHs—also referred to as nanobodies. These are much smaller than the conventional antibodies produced by most animals, including humans. They work by binding tightly to the virus’s spike proteins, effectively neutralising it by preventing it from prising open host cells and initiating infection. Even more impressively, these nanobodies appear to be broadly effective against a wide range of SARS-related coronaviruses.

While creationists might marvel at the ingenuity of such a designer, they would be hard-pressed to explain — or more likely, would simply ignore — why this supposedly anthropophilic intelligence chose not to equip humans with such a defence. Instead, it stood idly by as millions suffered and economies collapsed, despite having the ‘cure’ readily available.

This unique llama-specific mechanism was discovered by a team of researchers led by Prof. Xavier Saelens and Dr. Bert Schepens at the Flemish Institute for Biotechnology (Vlaams Instituut voor Biotechnologie) – University of Ghent (VIB-UGent) Center for Medical Biotechnology.

Refuting Creationism - Co-Evolution of Trees And Mastodons In South America

The extinct proboscidean species Notiomastodon platensis is observed feeding on Chilean palm fruit in La Campana National Park.

Author: Mauricio Álvarez

The disappearance of mastodons still threatens the native forests of South America - Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona - UAB Barcelona

Reconstruction of the paleoenvironments in which Chilean mastodons lived, from the semi-arid north to the cold rainforests of Patagonia.

Credit: Mauricio Álvarez

Just ten millennia ago, the mighty mastodons of South America played a crucial role in sustaining vast forests by spreading the seeds of large‑fruited trees—and now, new fossil evidence confirms that without these giants, entire ecosystems are crumbling [1, 2]. This groundbreaking research, published recently in Nature Ecology & Evolution, conclusively demonstrates that Notiomastodon platensis was an active frugivore based on detailed wear patterns and starch residues found in fossilised teeth [3].

For creationists who claim that life existed in its present form from the very beginning, this revelation is deeply unsettling. The discovery undermines the belief that forest ecosystems were always fully functional without the need for extinct megafauna—those massive mammals were not mere background actors but ecological engineers whose disappearance left communities of fruit‑bearing plants stranded, fragmented, and genetically impoverished.

Most strikingly, nearly 40 % of plant species once reliant on these now‑vanished seed spreaders are currently classified as threatened—up to four times the rate seen in regions still served by extant dispersers like tapirs or monkeys [2]. For creationists, this means that the natural world was far more dynamic—and far more dependent on evolutionary processes over deep time—than their models allow. If entire forests trebled on species interactions across thousands of years, then the simplistic view that everything was created perfectly, all at once, is seriously called into question.

A new study led by the University of O’Higgins, Chile, with key contributions from Institut Català de Paleoecologia Humana i Evolució Social, Centres de Recerca de Catalunya (IPHES-CERCA), demonstrates for the first time—based on direct fossil evidence—that these extinct elephant relatives regularly consumed fruit and were essential allies of many tree species. The researchers have just published their findings in the journal Nature Ecology & Evolution.

Creationism Refuted - How The Survivors of a Mass Extinction Evolved Into Dinosaurs

Euparkeria capensis, a small, 60 cm long reptile from the early Triassic period (245 - 237 million years ago).

Credit: Taenadoman, 2011
via Wikimedia Commons
CC A-SA 3.0

Triassic reptiles took 10,000 mile trips through “hellish” conditions, study suggests - University of Birmingham

Contrary to the child-like naivety and carefully cultivated ignorance of creationists, Earth is not — and never has been — a paradise perfectly designed for life, let alone tailor-made for humans. In reality, the vast majority of Earth's history — around 99.9975% of it — took place long before creationists believe the planet even existed, during which time the environment has frequently become so hostile that mass extinctions wiped out the majority of living species. Life as we know it today descends from the lucky few that managed to survive and adapt to radically altered conditions.

One of the most devastating of these extinction events was the end-Permian climate catastrophe, during which one group of reptiles — the archosauromorphs — managed to endure. From this resilient lineage emerged the dinosaurs, who would go on to dominate the planet until they too were annihilated by a cataclysmic meteor impact 66 million years ago.

While palaeontologists have long known about the survival and evolutionary significance of archosauromorphs, a lingering mystery remained: how did they manage to disperse across vast "dead zones" of the tropics, where temperatures were thought to be lethally high? A new study by researchers from the University of Birmingham and the University of Bristol has now shed light on this question. Their findings have been published, open access, in Nature Ecology & Evolution.

Malevolent Designer - Creationism's Putative Desiger Designed A Way to Prevent Cancer Spreading - And Gave It To Sea Cucumbers!

A sugar compound found in sea cucumbers could hold the key to stopping the spread of cancer, according to a recent UM-led study published in Glycobiology.

Graphic by Stefanie Goodwiller
University Marketing and Communications

Sea Cucumbers Could Hold Key to Stopping Cancer Spread | Ole Miss

Imagine you're a designer, and you've created a species — humans — for whom you have a particular fondness. Only, something keeps going dreadfully wrong with your blueprint. A large number of them keep dying because their cells become cancerous when they fail to replicate properly, and these cancers then spread to other organs, which ultimately give up the ghost.

Now, you can’t quite work out why these cancers start. For some reason, you've included substances called glycans on the surfaces of cells, and — just to complicate things — you’ve made cancer cells produce an enzyme called Sulf-2, which alters these glycans to help the cancer spread. Your solution? A stroke of genius: create another enzyme that inhibits Sulf-2. And lo! It works.

So, who do you give this life-saving enzyme to?

If you're creationism’s supposedly super-intelligent designer, you don’t give it to your favourite species — the one made in your own image, no less. No, instead you bestow this miracle molecule upon… sea cucumbers. A species that, incidentally, doesn’t even have a problem with cancer.

This, if they actually understood the subject properly, is what Intelligent Design creationists consider compelling evidence of a supremely intelligent designer.

The discovery that sea cucumbers possess this enzyme was made by researchers at the University of Mississippi and Georgetown University in Washington, DC. Their findings are published in the journal Glycobiology and can be read here.

It’s also neatly summarised in a University of Mississippi news article:

Refuting Creationism - How One Of Our Ancestral Species Travelled Across Eurasia

Simulations show Neanderthals likely traveled over 2,000 miles in just 2,000 years using natural corridors like rivers.

Credit: Shutterstock

Computer simulated paths of Neanderthal dispersals demonstrate they could have reached the Altai Mountains in Siberia within 2,000 years during warm climatic conditions in one of two ancient time periods—MIS 5e (approximately 125,000 years ago) or MIS 3 (approximately 60,000 years ago)—as demonstrated by the three different possible paths shown here. These paths follow a northern route through the Ural Mountains and southern Siberia, often intersecting with known archaeological sites from the same time periods.

Image: Emily Coco and Radu Iovita.

Anthropologists Map Neanderthals’ Long and Winding Roads Across Europe and Eurasia

One of the ancestral species of all non-African Homo sapiens, the Neanderthals, migrated across Eurasia from Central Europe to Central Asia between 120,000 and 60,000 years ago. In the Altai Mountains of Siberia, they encountered the Denisovans and interbred with them—just as they would later interbreed with Homo sapiens migrating northwards out of Africa some 20,000 years later.

This is the fascinating history of our cousin species, now being brought to light by researchers at New York University’s Centre for the Study of Human Origins.

It almost goes without saying that this, along with the very existence of Neanderthals and their interbreeding with Eurasian Homo sapiens, is entirely incompatible with basic creationist beliefs and a literal reading of the Bible. Like all scientific discoveries, however, it fits seamlessly with what we already know and further enriches our understanding of both Neanderthal life and our own evolutionary history.

The discovery also addresses one of the long-standing mysteries surrounding Neanderthal dispersal during the Ice Age—namely, how they migrated from their central European ‘homelands’ to the Altai Mountains in Central Asia, where they interbred with Denisovans in what was likely the northern limit of the Denisovans’ range. Until now, their migration route had remained unclear due to a lack of archaeological evidence.

The breakthrough comes from computer simulations, which reveal a network of habitable valleys that connected Central Europe to Central Asia during a warmer period lasting some 2,000 years—long enough for Neanderthals to have reached within 600 kilometres of the Altai Mountains. The New York anthropologists have recently published their findings in the journal PLOS One.

Refuting Creationism - Co-Evolution of Humans and Influenza Viruses - Just as the TOE Predicts

AI-generated image (ChatGPT4o)

H3N2 virus is a respiratory viral infection of the influenza A virus.

Large-scale immunity profiling grants insights into flu virus evolution | For the press | eLife

In a striking confirmation of evolutionary theory—and a clear rebuttal of several fundamental creationist claims—scientists have demonstrated a close correlation between population-level immunity and the evolution of influenza viruses to evade that immunity. The findings, reported in eLife, align perfectly with predictions made by evolutionary biology: as the immune landscape of a population shifts, so too does the genetic makeup of viruses in an ongoing evolutionary arms race.

Disappointingly for creationists hoping for signs that biomedical science is abandoning evolution in favour of supernatural explanations, there is no such evidence. Nowhere in the study is there a hint that scientists are retreating from evolutionary principles or embracing a non-falsifiable belief system involving mysterious, unexplained entities. On the contrary, the researchers are clear and unequivocal: their results reinforce the view that viral evolution is a dynamic, adaptive process shaped by natural selection in response to host immunity.

Even more troubling for proponents of Intelligent Design (ID) is the unavoidable implication that the viral mutations observed in this study constitute what William A. Dembski calls "complex specified information"—which he argues can only arise through the intervention of an intelligent designer. If one follows that line of reasoning, the logical (if deeply uncomfortable) conclusion is that this designer is actively modifying viruses to undermine the very immune systems it supposedly created to protect us. Such behaviour can hardly be described as intelligent and is incompatible with the benevolent deity so often associated with the Intelligent Design movement.

How Evolution Works - Co-opting Old Genes For New Functions

Liverworts lacking a gene called RLF have severe deformations in various organs (three plants pictured right and bottom), demonstrating that RLF is involved in organ development in these basic land plants as well.

© FUKAKI Hidehiro (CC BY)

Molecular phylogenetic tree of the REDUCED LATERAL ROOT FORMATION (RLF) protein family. The unrooted molecular phylogenetic tree was constructed based on amino acid sequences of RLF and CB5A, B, C, D, E, and LP from various plant species.

Iwata, K.P., Shimizu, T., Sakai, Y.,et al(2025)

A root development gene that’s older than root development | Kobe University News site

One common way creationist apologists attempt to mislead the scientifically uninformed is by claiming that the Laws of Thermodynamics are somehow relevant to the evolution of information within a species' genome. They argue that any increase in genetic information would violate both the Second and Third Laws of Thermodynamics—asserting that increased biological complexity equates to a decrease in entropy (disorder), and that new information is akin to energy and thus cannot increase due to the Law of Conservation.

This argument is fundamentally flawed on several levels but continues to be repeated despite being repeatedly refuted by both biologists and physicists. First, it completely ignores the fact that Earth is not a closed system. The input of energy from the Sun, for example, allows local decreases in entropy (such as in the formation of complex biological structures) while the total entropy of the universe still increases, fully complying with the Second Law. The Third Law, which relates to the entropy of systems at absolute zero, is entirely irrelevant to biological evolution.

Second, the idea that genetic information is conserved like energy is a misrepresentation. Genetic information can and does change in multiple ways through mutation. A mutation can involve the loss of information (e.g. deletion of a DNA segment), a change in information (e.g. substitution of one or more nucleotides), or an increase in information (e.g. insertion of additional sequences, or the movement of transposable elements—“jumping genes”—to new locations in the genome). None of these processes require a change in the total amount of matter or energy; they simply involve the rearrangement of existing molecular components. Any local increase in biological order is offset by energy expenditure elsewhere, typically via the hydrolysis of ATP to ADP and phosphate within metabolic pathways.

Moreover, these objections rest on the false assumption that evolution is about the quantity of information. In reality, it is the function and meaning of genetic information that drives evolutionary change. A sequence of DNA that once encoded a protein with one function can, through mutation and natural selection, take on a new function entirely—a process known as exaptation.

A well-known example is the evolution of the mammalian middle ear bones. In ancestral fish, certain jawbones played a structural role in the jaw joint. Over time, in early synapsids, these bones were repurposed and miniaturised to become part of the auditory system, transmitting sound vibrations from the eardrum to the cochlea.

Creationism Refuted - Exquisite Fossils From 226 Million Years Before 'Creation Week'

The Karoo Basin is a rich source of fossils for the Permian Period of life.

Image © WOLF AVNI/Shutterstock

Other life of this time included the lizard-like ancestors of tortoises, large amphibians that lurked like crocodiles just below the water surface, and forests dominated by a tree called Glossopteris with an understorey of spore-producing plants such as mosses, ferns and horsetails.

Photo: PEXELS

Exquisite new fossils from South Africa offer a glimpse into a thriving ecosystem 266 million years ago

In the realm of palaeontology, few discoveries are as illuminating as those that offer a window into ecosystems long vanished. A recent study published in The Conversation by palaeontologist Rosemary Prevec of Rhodes University, South Africa, unveils such a discovery: an exquisitely preserved fossil site in South Africa's Northern Cape province, dating back 266 million years to the middle Permian period. This site reveals a thriving ecosystem teeming with diverse plant life and a myriad of insect species, providing an unprecedented glimpse into pre-dinosaur terrestrial life.[1]

The significance of this find extends beyond its immediate scientific value; it directly challenges fundamental creationist assertions. By presenting concrete evidence of complex ecosystems existing millions of years before the advent of humans, it undermines the young-Earth creationist timeline that posits a 6,000 to 10,000-year-old Earth. The detailed stratigraphy and radiometric dating techniques employed corroborate the Earth's ancient history, aligning with the broader scientific consensus on geological and biological evolution.

Moreover, the discovery underscores the continuity and gradual progression of life forms, countering the notion of sudden creation. The intricate details preserved in these fossils—ranging from delicate insect wings to diverse plant structures—highlight the complexity and diversity of life well before the emergence of humans. Such findings reinforce the evolutionary narrative of life's development over hundreds of millions of years, offering tangible evidence against creationist models that reject evolutionary theory.

Rosemary Prevec's article in The Conversation is reprinted here under a Creative Commons licence, reformatted for stylistic consistency:

Unintelligent Design - Why Your Toothache Has Ancient Origins - In Your Ancestral Fish

Artistic rendering of the sensory exoskeletons of the early jawless vertebrate Astraspis being attacked by the sea-scorpion Megalograptus in dark shallow waters.

Brian Engh

CT scan of the front of a skate, showing the hard, tooth-like denticles on its skin (shown in orange).

Yara Haridy

Toothache from eating something cold? Blame these ancient fish | Biological Sciences Division | The University of Chicago

Have you ever taken a mouthful of ice cream or cold water, only to be rewarded with a sudden, stabbing pain in your teeth? It vanishes in a few seconds, but for that brief moment, it’s excruciating.

You might wonder what kind of intelligent designer would produce such a feature—one that serves no apparent purpose other than to make you suffer. The answer, of course, is that it wasn’t designed at all.

Like so much else about the human body, the sensitivity of our teeth is the product of evolution—a long, meandering process shaped not by foresight or intent, but by whatever natural selection happened to favour at the time. That over-sensitive layer of dentine beneath the enamel traces its origins back to ancient jawless fish, whose bony body armour included sensory structures capable of detecting changes in their environment. These structures were crucial for survival and heavily favoured by selection.

As evolution repurposed this structure over millions of years—eventually becoming part of our teeth—there was no strong selection pressure to reduce its sensitivity. In the aquatic world of those primitive fish, a keen sensory system might have meant the difference between life and death. In modern humans, however, it serves no meaningful function. A momentary sting when we drink something cold doesn’t affect our survival or reproductive success, so we’re left with a redundant sensory feature that occasionally causes pain.

If ever there were a perfect illustration of how evolution works—and why no intelligence is required—this is it. Unless, of course, you believe the designer in question is a malevolent deity with a particular interest in toothaches.

The discovery of this direct connection with our remote ancestral past was made by researchers at the University of Chicago who have just published their findings, open access in Science.

Creationism Refuted - Evolution By Advantageous Mutation

This gene variant contributed to the dietary and physiological evolution of modern humans | ScienceDaily

One of the enduring claims in creationist circles is that mutations are invariably harmful—deleterious at best, fatal at worst—and thus incapable of driving evolutionary progress. This notion underpins Michael J. Behe's concept of "devolution," which posits that genetic changes represent a decline from an assumed state of original perfection. Yet, this perspective fails to account for how such "inferior" mutations could supplant their "perfect" predecessors in a population. Moreover, if a genome were truly perfect, it would replicate without error, precluding any mutations—and, by extension, any evolutionary change.

A recent study published in Cell Genomics challenges this dogma by identifying a regulatory variant of the ACSF3 gene that appears to have played a significant role in human evolution . This variant, known as rs34590044-A, enhances the expression of ACSF3 in the liver, influencing both stature and basal metabolic rate (BMR). Notably, the effects of this mutation are amplified in individuals consuming meat-rich diets, suggesting a link between genetic adaptation and dietary shifts in human history.[1.1,2.1]

The ACSF3 gene encodes an enzyme involved in mitochondrial fatty acid synthesis, a critical process for energy metabolism. Increased expression of ACSF3 has been associated with improved mitochondrial function and bone formation, potentially contributing to greater height and higher BMR in modern humans. These findings underscore the role of beneficial mutations in human adaptation and evolution, directly contradicting the creationist assertion that mutations cannot produce advantageous traits.[3.1,4.1]

This discovery not only provides insight into the genetic factors influencing human physiology but also exemplifies how mutations can facilitate evolutionary advancements, thereby challenging the notion that all genetic changes are inherently detrimental.

The team from Human Phenome Institute, Zhongshan Hospital and School of Life Sciences, Fudan University, Shanghai, China with Mark Stoneking, Department of Evolutionary Genetics, Max Planck Institute for Evolutionary Anthropology, Leipzig, Germany, have recently published their findings in the open access Cell Press journal, Cell Genomics.

Creationism Refuted - How Mammalian Cold Adaptation Evolved - Starting 2.6 Million Years Before 'Creation Week'

Musk Ox, Ovibos moschatus

Arctic fox, Vulpes lagopus

Study reveals different phases of evolution during ice age | Bournemouth University

Creationists have yet another inconvenient science paper to ignore, misrepresent, or distort. A new study led by Professor John Stewart of Bournemouth University, UK, and published in Trends in Ecology & Evolution, presents compelling evidence that environmental change—specifically the climatic fluctuations of the Ice Age—has been a major driver of evolution.

By examining both fossil and palaeogenetic data in the context of glaciation records, the research team has shown that adaptations to cold climates began emerging around 2.6 million years ago. This evolutionary process significantly accelerated about 700,000 years ago, when glacial cycles shifted and cold periods began lasting twice as long. During warmer interglacial phases, cold-adapted species appear to have retreated into climatic refugia, only to expand again as the ice returned.

The main, but not the only, cause of these periods of alternating glaciation and warmer climate were the Milankovitch cycles. For details, see the AI information panel.

Reindeer, Rangifer tarandus

This study aligns closely with Darwinian evolutionary theory, and, contrary to claims by creationists that biologists are abandoning Darwinian evolution in favour of creationism, not with the metaphysical claims of intelligent design. Unsurprisingly, the researchers make no appeal to supernatural forces or pseudo-scientific conjecture. Instead, their work builds on and reinforces the evolutionary framework that has repeatedly proven its explanatory and predictive power.

Perhaps most damning to creationist dogma, the evolutionary events described took place hundreds of thousands—if not millions—of years before young-Earth creationists claim the planet was even formed. Depending on which apologetic is in play, creationists must now choose between proposing ludicrously accelerated post-Flood evolution or invoking the second law of thermodynamics in ways physicists and biologists would find baffling, using it to try to argue that events which can be observed could not have happened due to a fundamental law of physics.

Unintelligent Design - Bizarre Heath-Robinson Reproduction In A Marine Worm

[Body]

Close-up of female stolen – one of the independent reproductive units – from the worm Ramisyllis kingghidorahi. It has already sprouted eyes and is swimming free to find a stolon of the opposite sex with which to reproduce.

Information for the Media - Georg-August-Universität Göttingen

As a supposed product of intelligent design, the reproductive process of the branching marine worm Ramisyllis kingghidorahi is nothing short of bizarre—especially when one considers that many of its marine worm relatives manage perfectly well with far more straightforward, functional reproductive strategies, free from the Heath-Robinson complexity seen in R. kingghidorahi.

This remarkable worm comprises a branching network of segments, the ends of which can transform into free-living reproductive units known as stolons. These stolons firstly grow a pair of eyes then detach from the main body and swim off in search of a partner—another stolon of the opposite sex.

Yet the most pressing question for biologists isn’t why such a labyrinthine reproductive system evolved, but how it is controlled and coordinated across the worm’s sprawling body. This is precisely the mystery tackled by a team of researchers from Georg-August-Universität Göttingen, Germany.

Their research has just been published, open access, in the journal BMC Genomics.

Malevolent Or Incompetent Design? - Or Just Mindless Evolution?

Chikungunya virus has become a disease of global concern due to its potentially disabling consequences and its efficient transmission.

The Aedes mosquito is the primary vector for the Chikungunya virus

LJI scientists uncover clues to how a viral infection can lead to arthritis-like disease – lji.org

Scientists believe they have uncovered a mechanism by which a viral infection can trigger a persistent autoimmune response, leading to chronic and often severe pain.

If fully understood, this discovery poses a significant challenge to Intelligent Design (ID) creationism. Under the ID paradigm, such an outcome leaves us with two unpalatable options: either the designer is incompetent, having failed to foresee the consequences of a poorly calibrated immune system, or the suffering inflicted on random individuals is intentional—engineered by design.

This finding also reignites a long-standing issue for creationism: the existence of parasites, particularly viruses. According to criteria promoted by Discovery Institute fellows William A. Dembski ("complex specified information") and Michael J. Behe ("irreducible complexity"), viruses must be regarded as the product of intelligent design. Yet these same entities are responsible for making us ill—seemingly by the same designer who supposedly crafted our immune system to protect us from them. The contradiction is striking.

The explanation stems from recent work by a research team at the La Jolla Institute for Immunology and is published in Cell Reports Medicine.

Abiogenesis News - Closing Creationism's Favourite God-Shaped Gap - Still No God(s) Found

Diagram of an early cell membrane.

AI Generated image (ChatGPT4o)

How membranes may have brought about the chemistry of life on Earth | Department of Biology

Another hefty spadeful of science has just been shovelled into one of creationism’s favourite god-shaped gaps: the ever-shrinking mystery of abiogenesis. This is the gap that, through the intellectually dishonest tactic of the false dichotomy, creationists claim as evidence for their chosen deity.

Not only is this approach scientifically bankrupt, it also conveniently spares them the bother of providing any evidence or a testable mechanism of their own. For a target audience conditioned to see science as an attempt to disprove their god, the logic goes: if science is wrong—or even just incomplete—then “God did it!” wins by default.

But that dreaded moment for creationists, when science finally closes the gap and, like every other gap in history, finds no need for gods or magic in the explanation, draws ever nearer. The latest discovery bringing us closer comes in the form of new research into the origin and function of membranes—an essential step on the path from chemistry to life.

This particular piece of gap-filling comes from a paper published in PLOS Biology, authored by a team led by Professor Thomas Richards, Professor of Evolutionary Genomics in the Department of Biology at the University of Oxford. The researchers demonstrate that early cell membranes could not only have formed through natural processes, but also had the crucial ability to control what passed through them.

In doing so, they explain what had been something of a mystery and a favourite claim of ID creationists - the chirality of 'living' molecules where all amino acids have the same chirality. Creationists claim this shows the hand of an intelligent designer. This work shows it has a natural explanation.

Creationism Refuted - Now It's an Australian Tree Frog From 55 Million Years Before 'Creation Week'.

Artist’s reconstruction of the new species Litoria tylerantiqua (right) and previously described species Platyplectrum casca (left) from Murgon, south-eastern Queensland

Samantha Yabsley
https://www.instagram.com/s.h.y_art.

Clockwise from bottom: An artist’s reconstruction of a turtle Murgonemys braithwaitei, a bird Murgonornis archeri, a mammal Thylacotinga bartholomaii, a bat Australonycteris clarkae and a frog Platyplectrum casca from Murgon, south-eastern Queensland.

Peter Schouten

Australia’s oldest prehistoric tree frog hops 22 million years back in time

In addition to the recent discovery of early reptile tracks in Australia—dated to 350 million years before 'Creation Week'—creationists have just been given another reason to resent Australia: a 55-million-year-old fossil tree frog.

The discovery was made by three palaeontologists at the University of New South Wales in Sydney, NSW, Australia. Their findings have just been published, open access, in the Journal of Vertebrate Paleontology. It will no doubt take some of creationism's sharpest minds to devise excuses for dismissing this evidence, while continuing to cling to the childish fantasy that Earth was conjured into existence by a magical, immaterial deity just 6,000 to 10,000 years ago—along with all life, fully formed and without ancestors.

The first line of attack will likely involve misrepresenting the dating methods used, in an attempt to cast doubt on their reliability, followed by accusations that the scientists falsified their data to conform to evolutionary 'dogma' and secure publication.

What creationists must never do, however, is admit that the fossil really does date to 55 million years ago. To do so would be to concede that a literalist interpretation of the Genesis creation story is false—thereby undermining the entire premise that the Bible was written by, or inspired by, an all-knowing creator god.

Creationism Refuted - New Finding Shows That Reptiles Were Around At Least 350 million Years Before 'Creation Week'

Early amniote reconstruction.

Martin Ambrozik.

Fossil tracks revise march of early life on Earth – News

In a paper that creationists will no doubt feel compelled to ignore, misrepresent, or dismiss, scientists report the discovery of reptile tracks in 350-million-year-old Australian rocks. This remarkable find pushes back the earliest known trace of reptiles by some 40 million years.

For mainstream science, this discovery provides further clarification of the timeline for the evolution of terrestrial tetrapods. However, for creationists—who continue to compress Earth's 3.8-billion-year history into a mere 6,000 to 10,000 years in order to preserve a literal interpretation of Genesis—it presents yet another challenge to their beliefs.

It is the kind of evidence that science routinely uncovers, forcing creationists into ever more creative contortions to avoid confronting the reality of evolution.

The discovery was made by Professor John Long of Flinders University and colleagues, who have detailed their findings and their significance in a Flinders University press release. Additionally, Professor Long, together with Grzegorz Niedzwiedzki and Professor Per Ahlberg of Uppsala University, Sweden, has published an open-access article discussing the research in The Conversation.

Their article in The Conversation is reproduced here under a Creative Commons license, reformatted for stylistic consistency:

Malevolent Designer News - How an Intelligent Designer COULD Have Made us all Immune to HIV but Chose not to

Researchers map 7,000-year-old genetic mutation that protects against HIV – University of Copenhagen

Let’s step into the mindset of an Intelligent Design (ID) creationist for a moment, as we examine a recent scientific study investigating why a small minority of people are immune to the Human Immunodeficiency Virus (HIV), while the vast majority are not.

A research team from the Novo Nordisk Foundation Center for Basic Metabolic Research (CBMR) at the University of Copenhagen, led by Professor Simon Rasmussen, has discovered that this immunity is conferred by a genetic mutation. This mutation originated in a single individual who lived near the Black Sea between 6,700 and 9,000 years ago.

According to Discovery Institute Fellow William A. Dembski, this mutation would represent what he calls “complex specified information”, a concept he attributes to an intelligent designer. Dembski argues that only such a designer could create the necessary genetic information, as mutation and natural selection alone are not goal-directed and therefore cannot produce the desired specificity. However, Dembski is notably vague about how we can objectively determine what genetic information is “specified” and what is not. He appears to rely on subjective judgement, essentially deeming any beneficial mutation as “specified”, while dismissing deleterious mutations as irrelevant.

Even granting Dembski his biased subjectivity, we are left with the implication that the mutation which conferred HIV immunity to this individual's descendants must have been “specified” by his proposed intelligent designer.

This raises an obvious question: if the intelligent designer of humans could have provided our species with immunity to HIV, why did it choose not to do so from the outset? Why rely on what appears to be a slow, natural evolutionary process to spread this mutation through the population—one that depends on people dying of HIV while those with the mutation survive and reproduce, creating the selection pressure for its spread? A process so gradual that, to this day, it remains a rare trait in the human gene pool, with only 18-25% of Danes carrying the mutated gene.

It also raised a couple of theological question for creationists: why would an omnibenevolent creator create HIV with its 'designed' ability to bypass our immune system the same designer allegedly designed to protect us and how is that an intelligent act by an omnibenevolent deity?

Refuting CReationism - A Transitional Salmon Ancestor from 73 Million Years Before 'Creation Week'

Horseshoeichthys armaserratus from the Prince Creek Formation (PCF) and Dinosaur Park Formation compared.

See caption below

New ancient fish species earliest known salmon ancestor | UAF news and information

Cypriniform abdominal centrum from the Prince Creek Formation (A, UAMES 54154) compared with an extant cypriniform abdominal centrum (B, Catostomus Catostomus, TMP 1990.0007.303) in (from left to right): anterior, left lateral, posterior, dorsal and ventral view. Images in A are digital reconstructions from computed tomography scans; images in B are photographs of specimens dusted with ammonium chloride. Scale bars represent 1 mm.

Contrary to the childish fairy tales believed by creationists which tell tales of magic creation ex nihilo just a few thousand years ago, real grown-up science repeatedly shows that 99.9975% of Earth's history happened before then and living species are the result of an evolutionary process.

It’s no surprise then that this is just another such paper. It reports on the discovery of fossil ancestors of modern salmon which lived in Alaskan rivers, 70 million years ago, pushing back the earliest ancestral salmon so far discovered by 20 million years.

The discovery was made by palaeontologists from the University of Alaska, Fairbanks led by Patrick Druckenmiller, director of the University of Alaska Museum of the North. They have just published their findings, open access, in the journal, Papers in Palaeontology. Their work is also explained in a University of Alaska, Fairbanks, news item: