Refuting Creationism - How Daisies Speciated On Isolated Islands

Top: Pleurophyllum speciosum
Bottom: Pulicaria canariensis

Top: Bidens mooreensis
Bottom: Argyroxiphium sandwicense

Pleurophyllum speciosum - Campbell Island.

Credit Phil Garnock-Jones.

Isolated daisies have the greatest diversity | Naturalis

Creationists try to get round the absurdity of the Bible myth which has two (or seven) of every species being packed into a wooden boat small enough to survive turbulent seas for a year, by introducing a new element to the myth that their god forgot to include - that there were just two (or seven) of each 'kind' and all of them underwent a period of warp-speed evolution (that non-one seemed to have noted) with several new species popping into existence each generation to give the many millions of known terrestrial species we have today.

Understandably, creationists are reticent to put any numbers on their claim. They won't say how many different 'kinds' there were on the boat, how many new species arose at each generation and for how long this period of fantastical speciation lasted. Nor will they define 'kind' in any meaningful way that matches any recognisable taxon. I have even been told it can mean 'animal kind' and 'plant kind'. It seems to vary according to the needs of the argument.

And they won't say why some 'kinds' have just one or two species while others have hundreds, or in the case of the Asteraceae family of plants, some 34,000 distinct species, so some must have been speciating much faster then other while some hardly bothered if at all.

In the later case, we now have a substantial database compiled by a team at the Naturalis Biodiversity Center, Leiden, The Netherlands which catalogues all 34,000 different species with their geographical distribution, showing how they radiated and diversified into new species, colonising isolated islands and, like Darwin's finches, radiating into different species on each island in an archipelago.

Refuting Creationism - Arctic Sled Dogs Had Already Diversified Into Two Types At Least 1,700 Years Before 'Creation Week'

A predicted phenotypic reconstruction of the ancient Zhokhov sled dog

Smith, T.A; Srikanth, K; Huson, H.J. (2024)

A team of Siberian huskies races in the Anchorage Fur Rendezvous in 2013 in Alaska.

Britt Coon

Genomics reveals sled dogs’ Siberian lineage | Cornell Chronicle

The History of dogs and their co-evolution with humans as they diverged from their wolf ancestors is a fascinating and complex story, most of which, like 99.9975% of all of the history of life on Earth occurred before creationist's legendary 'Creation Week'.

'Creation Week' is when creationists believe a magic god made of nothing magicked a small universe consisting of a single flat planet with a dome over it, centred on the Middle East, all out of nothing, in just 6 days about 10,000 years ago, (although why an omnipotent god couldn't have done it all in an instant and needed 6 full days, with a day to recover from the effort, is never explained).

Refuting Creationism - Earliest Ancestors of the Tasmanian Tiger Were Alive 23-25 Million Years Before 'Creation Week'

Artist’s reconstruction of Badjcinus timfaulkneri scavenging on the carcass of Silvabestius michaelbirti, a wombat-like marsupial also from Hiatus Site.

Illustration by
Peter Schouten.

Tasmanian tiger, Thylacinus cynocephalus

AI generated image.

Earliest known ancestors of the extinct Tasmanian Tiger discovered – and some could even eat the bones and teeth of their prey - Taylor & Francis Newsroom

88 years ago today, the last Tasmanian tiger died in Beaumaris Zoo, Hobart, Tasmania.

It was the last in a line of carnivorous marsupial going back at least 23-25 million years ago, in the extended period of Earth's pre-'Creation Week' history when creationists believe there was nothing out of which a magic man made of nothing made everything in 6 days, just 10,000 years ago. According to creationist mythology, the Tasmanian tiger would have had no ancestors, being magically made from dirt just like every other living species.

This makes it hard for creation to explain the evidence of all those fossils known to be far older than 10,000 years and showing evidence of the evolution of extant species from ancient ancestors as species diversified from a single common ancestor which lived hundreds of millions of years ago, but then facts were never a problem for counter-factual creationism.

What information do you have on the extinct Tasmanian tiger? The Tasmanian tiger, also known as the thylacine (Thylacinus cynocephalus), was a carnivorous marsupial native to Tasmania, mainland Australia, and New Guinea. The thylacine looked somewhat like a medium-to-large dog with a slender body, a head resembling that of a wolf or dog, and distinctive dark stripes across its back and tail, giving it the nickname "Tasmanian tiger." However, it was more closely related to kangaroos and other marsupials.

Key Information about the Tasmanian Tiger:

1. Physical Description:
   • The thylacine was about the size of a large dog, with a length of up to 1.8 to 2 meters (including the tail) and a height at the shoulder of about 60 cm.
   • Its fur was short and coarse, typically tan or yellow-brown, with 13 to 20 dark stripes across its back and tail.
   • It had a long, stiff tail, similar to a kangaroo's, and could open its jaws incredibly wide, up to 120 degrees.
   
   
2. Habitat and Behavior:
   • The thylacine was a nocturnal and solitary animal, hunting at night and resting during the day in a den or hollow log.
   • It primarily fed on small to medium-sized animals, such as kangaroos, birds, and small mammals. Its diet may have also included carrion.
   
   
3. Extinction:
   • The thylacine was driven to extinction on the Australian mainland thousands of years ago, likely due to competition with humans and the dingo, a wild dog introduced to Australia.
   • In Tasmania, the species persisted until the 20th century. The last known wild thylacine was killed in 1930, and the last known individual in captivity died in 1936 at the Hobart Zoo in Tasmania.
   • Its extinction was primarily due to human activities, including hunting (encouraged by a bounty system), habitat destruction, and the introduction of diseases.
   
   
4. Conservation Efforts and "Rediscovery" Claims:
   • Despite being declared extinct, there have been numerous unconfirmed sightings and efforts to find surviving thylacines, but none have been scientifically verified.
   • Some scientific projects have explored the possibility of "de-extinction" using preserved DNA from museum specimens, but these efforts remain largely theoretical.
   
   
5. Cultural Significance:
   • The thylacine holds a unique place in Tasmanian culture and Australian folklore, often seen as a symbol of the tragedy of extinction and the need for wildlife conservation.
   • It appears on Tasmania's coat of arms and has been the subject of various books, documentaries, and studies.

Would you like to know more about any specific aspect of the Tasmanian tiger?

How the oldest ancestors of the Tasmanian tiger were discovered by palaeontologists from the University of New South Wales, Australia, is the subject of a Taylor & Francis news release:

Earliest known ancestors of the extinct Tasmanian Tiger discovered – and some could even eat the bones and teeth of their prey

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A marsupial which had an “extremely thick” jawbone, enabling it to consume even the bones and teeth of its prey is among a discovery of three, new ancient species of the modern Thylacines – otherwise known as the Tasmanian tiger, which went extinct 88 years ago.

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These new species each roamed Australia around 23-to-25 million years ago, during the late Oligocene, making them the “undoubted oldest members of this family ever discovered”.

Today – Australia’s National Threatened Species Day, which marks the death of the last Tasmanian Tiger in Hobart’s Beaumaris Zoo on the 7th of September 1936 – scientists from the University of New South Wales (UNSW) Vertebrate Palaeontology Lab publish their findings in the Journal of Vertebrate Paleontology.

The once suggested idea that Australia was dominated by reptilian carnivores during these 25 million-year-long intervals is steadily being dismantled as the fossil record of marsupial carnivores, such as these new thylacinids, increases with each new discovery. The diversity of mammalian carnivores at Riversleigh during this period rivals that seen in any other ecosystem, including the great mammalian carnivore radiation that developed in South America.

Timothy Churchill, lead author
University of New South Wales
Sydney, New South Wales, Australia.

The three new species were each found in the fossil-rich deposits in Riversleigh World Heritage Area.

The largest of these new species, Badjcinus timfaulkneri, weighed somewhere between 7-11 kilograms, about the same size as a large Tasmanian Devil. Alike the Tasmanian Devil, timfaulkneri possessed an extremely thick jawbone enabling it to consume the bones and teeth of its prey. This species is related to the much smaller, previously discovered B. turnbulli (2.7 kg) – which until now was the only other undoubted thylacinid known from the late Oligocene.

The dentary and isolated first molar of B. timfaulkneri were recovered from Hiatus Site which is even older than Riversleigh’s White Hunter Site where B. turnbulli was previously found, making B. timfaulkneri the oldest undoubted thylacine discovered so far.

Badjcinus timfaulkneri is named after Tim Faulkner, the director and co-owner of the Australian Reptile Park and managing director of Aussie Ark. Tim has dedicated his life to the conservation of Australia’s wildlife including the largest still-living marsupial carnivore, the Tasmanian Devil.

The second new species is Nimbacinus peterbridgei. This was about the size of a Maltese Terrier (~3.7 kg). This species is represented by a near-complete dentary from White Hunter Site. Nimbacinus peterbridgei was a predator that probably focused on small mammals and other diverse prey species that lived with it in the ancient forests. Species of Nimbacinus appear to be more closely related to the Tasmanian Tiger than other thylacinids of similar age. This means Nimbacinus peterbridgei is probably the oldest direct ancestor of the Tasmanian Tiger yet known.

Nimbacinus peterbridgei was named after Australian geologist, speleologist and bibliophile Peter Bridge. He has devoted his life to helping uncover Australia’s ancient past, particularly in the caves of Western Australia.

The last species, Ngamalacinus nigelmarveni was a ~5.1kg thylacinid – approximately the size of a Red fox. It was also from White Hunter Site at Riversleigh. The blades on the lower molars of species of Ngamalacinus are elongated with deep V-shaped carnassial (‘meat-cutting’) notches, suggesting they were highly carnivorous – more so than any of the other thylacinids of similar size.

Ngamalacinus nigelmarveni is named after Nigel Marven, a renowned British television documentary presenter famous for paleontology-inspired series like Prehistoric Park and Sea Monsters.

The presence of three distinct lineages of specialised thylacinids during the late Oligocene highlights how quickly they diversified after first appearing in the fossil record. These thylacinids exhibits very different dental adaptations, suggesting there were several unique carnivorous niches available during this period. All but one of these lineages, the one that led to the modern Thylacine, became extinct around 8 million years ago.

That lineage of these creatures that survived for more than 25 million years ended with the death of Benjamin, the last Tasmanian Tiger in Hobart’s Beaumaris Zoo on the 7th of September 1936.

Professor Michael Archer, co-author
University of New South Wales
Sydney, New South Wales, Australia.

ABSTRACT
New thylacinid species of Badjcinus, Nimbacinus, and Ngamalacinus are described from upper Oligocene deposits of the Riversleigh World Heritage Area, northwestern Queensland. Badjcinus timfaulkneri, Nimbacinus peterbridgei, and Ngamalacinus nigelmarveni are among the oldest thylacinids yet known and indicate an earlier diversification of the family than previously understood. Maximum parsimony analysis supports a sister group relationship between Ng. nigelmarveni and Ng. timmulvaneyi, but the relationships of the two other new taxa are unresolved. Bayesian dated total evidence analysis using morphological and molecular data supports the generic assignment of B. timfaulkneri and Ng. nigelmarveni but not that of Ni. peterbridgei. Both phylogenies herein support a taxonomic reassignment of Thylacinus macknessi to the genus Wabulacinus, a conclusion also supported by the results of previous studies. Body mass estimates based on molar size regressions indicate body sizes ranging from 3.7 kg to 11.4 kg for the new thylacinid species. Badjcinus timfaulkneri exhibits an extremely deep jaw compared with other thylacinids, with mandibular bending strength analysis suggesting that it was a highly durophagous carnivore much like the modern dasyurid Sarcophilus harrisii. This analysis also suggests Ni. peterbridgei had a dentary more similar in shape to that of plesiomorphic thylacinid faunivores such as Ni. dicksoni and T. cynocephalus suggesting that it had a relatively more generalist faunivorous diet. The molars of Ng. nigelmarveni suggest they were better suited for longitudinal slicing than the molars of B. timfaulkneri and Ni. peterbridgei, indicating a more hypercarnivorous diet compared with that of those species.

INTRODUCTION
There are 12 extinct species in the dasyuromorphian family Thylacinidae, 10 of which are from the Oligo-Miocene (26–5.3 Ma) (Rovinsky et al., 2019). Unlike during the Plio-Pleistocene (5.3–0.12 Ma), which is dominated by large hypercarnivorous species of Thylacinus (15–55 kg), the Oligo-Miocene radiation exhibits considerably higher generic diversity, with seven monospecific clades known from the Riversleigh World Heritage Area in northwestern Queensland, all of which were between 3–10 kg in body mass. This restriction in size suggests thylacinids occupied most of the small- to medium-sized faunivorous niches at Riversleigh (1–10 kg). Contemporary peramelemorphians (∼50 g–1.5 kg) (Gurovich et al., 2014; Travouillon et al., 2013; Travouillon et al., 2010, 2014.1) and thylacoleonids (∼10–50 kg) (Gillespie, 2023; Gillespie et al., 2016, 2019.1a, 2019.2b) occupied relatively smaller and larger carnivore niches.

The oldest undoubted thylacinid, Badjcinus turnbulli Muirhead & Wroe, 1998, is known only from White Hunter Site in the Riversleigh World Heritage Area. This and other late Oligocene sites at Riversleigh have not yet been radiometrically dated. White Hunter Site is interpreted to be late Oligocene in age because of the presence of the ilariid Kuterintja ngama, otherwise only known from the Ngama Local Fauna from the Etadunna Formation, which is magnetostratigraphically dated to 24.8–25 Ma (Myers & Archer, 1997; Woodburne et al., 1994). Riversleigh’s Faunal Zone A (FZA) deposits contain taxa that support a late Oligocene age (Arena et al., 2016.1; Travouillon et al., 2006). The relatively plesiomorphic dentition of B. turnbulli has led to difficulty in taxonomic assignment, with phylogenetic analyses placing it either as a basally branching member of Thylacinidae (Kealy & Beck, 2017; Muirhead & Wroe, 1998; Murray & Megirian, 2006.1a; Wroe & Musser, 2001), as a stem dasyurid (Wroe et al., 2000), or as a sister group to Dasyuromorphia as a whole (Kealy & Beck, 2017).

Only two other thylacinid fossils are known from upper Oligocene deposits. Originally assigned to Nimbacinus dicksoni but later reassigned to Thylacinidae incertae sedis, an isolated m2 (QM F16809) from D-Site at Riversleigh is the only other thylacinid known from Riversleigh’s upper Oligocene deposits (Muirhead & Archer, 1989; Murray & Megirian, 2000.1; Wroe & Musser, 2001). An isolated, broken M2 (NTM P2815–10) of a thylacinid is also known from the Pwerte Marnte Marnte Local Fauna (LF) in the Northern Territory, a deposit assumed to be upper Oligocene on the basis of biocorrelation (Murray & Megirian, 2006.2b; Woodburne et al., 1994). Although this upper molar, which is similar in size to the putative thylacinid Mutpuracinus archibaldi, was suggested by Murray and Megirian (2006.2b) to be the oldest thylacinid in the fossil record, there are doubts about its identification as a thylacinid (see Discussion).

Nimbacinus dicksoni Muirhead & Archer, 1989, is the best preserved and researched Miocene thylacinid (Attard et al., 2014.2; Murray & Megirian, 2000.1; Wroe & Musser, 2001). Multiple specimens including a near complete skull and skeleton are known from Middle Miocene deposits at Riversleigh and from the Bullock Creek LF in the Northern Territory. The dentition of Ni. dicksoni is relatively more plesiomorphic than that of other thylacinids (except possibly Muribacinus gadiyuli) in retaining slightly reduced metaconids on m2–4 and unreduced stylar cusps on M1–3. Previous morphofunctional analyses of the skull of Ni. dicksoni suggest it was a voracious predator capable of hunting prey larger than itself, with biting capabilities most similar to extant species of Dasyurus, rather than to the larger Thylacinus cynocephalus (Attard et al., 2014.2).

In addition to Nimbacinus dicksoni, four monotypic thylacinid genera are known from upper and lower dentitions recovered from Early and Middle Miocene Riversleigh deposits. These include the medium-sized (∼5–7 kg) Wabulacinus ridei and Ngamalacinus timmulvaneyi Muirhead, 1997.1, as well as the diminutive (∼1–2 kg) Muribacinus gadiyuli Wroe, 1996, and the large (∼18 kg) Maximucinus muirheadae Wroe, 2001.1a (Myers, 2001.2). The dentition of Ng. timmulvaneyi, W. ridei, and Ma. muirheadae have been considered to be relatively plesiomorphic in comparison with species of Thylacinus, but more derived than Ni. dicksoni (Muirhead, 1997.1). The diminutive Mur. gadiyuli is dentally the most plesiomorphic thylacinid known (Wroe, 1996).

Thylacinus macknessi Muirhead, 1992, from Riversleigh’s Early Miocene Neville’s Garden Site, is tentatively regarded as the earliest known member of the genus Thylacinus (Muirhead & Gillespie, 1995). This taxon possesses unique dental adaptations associated with a shift within the Thylacinus lineage towards hypercarnivory, including near complete loss of metaconids on m2–4, loss of entoconids, reduction of the lingual portion of the talonid margin in m2–4 and a lingual shift of the hypoconid so that the cristid obliqua forms a continuous longitudinal blade with the paracristid.

The powerful thylacine, T. potens Woodburne, 1967, from the Alcoota Local Fauna in the Northern Territory, has been interpreted on the basis of biocorrelation to be Late Miocene between 8.5 and 5.5 Ma (Megirian et al., 1996.1, 2010.1). It is the largest and most hypercarnivorous thylacinid known. It has been estimated to be between 30–56 kg in adult body mass (Myers, 2001.2; Wroe, 2001.1a), with some estimates exceeding 120 kg (Yates, 2014.3). Two additional species of Thylacinus with dental adaptations for increased carnivory, T. yorkellus and T. megiriani, are known from Upper Miocene to Lower Pliocene deposits (Murray, 1997.2; Yates, 2015).

Tyarrpecinus rothi Murray & Megirian, 2000.1, is a small thylacinid from the Late Miocene Alcoota Local Fauna of the Northern Territory. It is known from a broken maxilla that retains P2 and an isolated M2. The phylogenetic relationships and paleobiology of this taxon cannot be confidently determined until more complete craniodental material is found.

The quoll-sized Mutpuracinus archibaldi Murray & Megirian, 2000.1, known from a near complete skull with an incomplete upper and lower dentition from the Middle Miocene Bullock Creek LF in the Northern Territory (Murray & Megirian, 2006.1a), was initially considered to be an early thylacinid because of craniodental and basicranial similarities to plesiomorphic thylacinids such as Ni. dicksoni. However, more recent phylogenetic analyses suggest it should be regarded as Dasyuromorphia incertae sedis because of its lack of craniodental synapomorphies uniting it with undoubted thylacinids (Churchill et al., 2023.1; Kealy & Beck, 2017; Rovinsky et al., 2019).

Two further medium-sized (1–10 kg) incertae sedis dasyuromorphians are known from Miocene deposits; Whollydooleya tomnpatrichorum Archer, Christmas et al., 2016.2, from Miocene deposits in New Riversleigh (an area approximately 10 km southwest of the Riversleigh World Heritage Area) and Apoktesis cuspis Campbell, 1976, from upper Oligocene deposits at Lake Ngapakaldi in the Tirari Desert of South Australia. Either may be related to thylacinids or dasyurids (Archer, Christmas et al., 2016.2; Campbell, 1976). However, the lack of adequate fossil material to critically assess the relationships of these two enigmatic taxa precludes a more precise assignment beyond Dasyuromorphia incertae sedis. Whollydooleya tomnpatrichorum is only known from a single lower molar while the location of the skull and dentaries attributed to A. cuspis is currently unknown.

In this study, we describe three new species of thylacinid from Riversleigh’s oldest deposits: the upper Oligocene Hiatus and White Hunter Sites. The fossil specimens herein are all dentaries retaining near complete or partial lower dentitions.

Of course, it would be stupid to assume the Bronze Age pastoralists who wrote the Bible knew anything about Australia, or even a southern hemisphere. Since they believe Earth was a small flat place with a dome over it, they wouldn't even have considered hemispheres, northern of southern. Their view of the world was so narrow and restricted they thought all they had to explain was the small area within a day or two's walk of the Canaanite Hills, so nothing outside that small area was included; not an animals, mountain, continent or people; nothing.

So, the idea that they would have believed the Tasmanian tiger was magically created without ancestors 10,000 years ago or less is utterly preposterous and could only be believed by someone at least as blind to the evidence as were the authors of Genesis.

Refuting Creationism - How Mediterranean Biodiversity Evolved - 5.5 Million Years Before 'Creation Week'

Marine sediments hosting abundant fossils dated in the Late Miocene, from about 8 to 7 million years ago.

Credit: Konstantina Agiadi

Fig. 2: Reconstruction of a marine landscape of the Early Pliocene (5.1-4.5 million years ago)

Art © Alberto Gennari.

How a salt giant radically reshaped Mediterranean marine biodiversity

Because they were so ignorant of the history of their part of the world, the origin myths made up by the Bronze Age authors of Genesis, told us nothing about the rich history of the sea that was almost on their doorstep, and the one in which they set daft tales like that of Jonah - the Mediterranean.

The Mediterranean Sea (the sea in the Middle of the Earth to the Romans) was central to history of the Middle East, Western Europe and North Africa but few people then could have been aware that the sea itself is a mere (on a geological timescale) 5.5 million years old in its present form.

It was formed firstly by the African plate pushing north towards Eurasia causing a water-filled depression to form that was originally connected to the Atlantic Ocean, but, as Africa pushed further north, causing mountains in modern-day Morocco and Spain to rise up, the Mediterranean became isolated and, with low inflow and high temperatures, what had been the Mediterranean Sea became a salt-filled depression, known to geologists as the Messinian Salinity Crisis (MSC) when the sea dried up leaving a thick deposit of salt and gypsum and of course exterminating just about all marine life.

Recreation of one of the proposed models for how the Mediterranean was isolated by the sinking of a lithospheric plate into the Earth’s mantle (approx. 6 million years ago) and how dry climate then lead to the desiccation of that sea during the Messinian Salinity Crisis (approx. 5.5 million years ago), until 5.33 million years ago, the level of the Atlantic exceeded that of the Gibraltar land bridge and triggered a fast refill.

© CSIC - Daniel García-Castellanos.

This was ended abruptly when the Atlantic Ocean broke through at the Western end in what is now the Straits of Gibraltar when the Mediterranean basin refilled extremely quickly, possible in a few months to two years.

Refuting Creationism - How a Mass Extinction 66 Million Year Before Creation Week Triggered The Rappid Evolution Of Birds

The Broad-billed Tody, Todus subulatus, is a member of the bird group Coraciimorphae.

Image credit: Daniel Field,
University of Cambridge

The Northern Flicker, Colaptes auratus, is a member of the bird group Coraciimorphae. Berv and co-authors identify this group of birds and others as having close ties to the end-Cretaceous mass extinction that occurred in the wake of the Chicxulub asteroid impact approximately 66 million years ago.

Image credit: Daniel Field, University of Cambridge

Mass extinction 66 million years ago triggered rapid evolution of bird genomes | University of Michigan News

Another major milestone in the history of life on Earth happened, like almost everything else, in that long pre-Creation Week history that creationists need to ignore. It was the mass extinction about 66 million years ago that killed the non-avian dinosaurs and most megafauna, leaving vacant niches that could be exploited by the descendants of survivors. It's no surprise to anyone who understands how evolution works, that this led to a proliferation of new species as existing species diversified to fill those niches.

That much was known already from the fossil record, but now a University of Michigan study has found how this maps onto changes in the genome of the major bird families, as a kind of DNA fossil, just as the TOE predicts.

The major difference between the different taxons is how developed the chicks are on hatching and how dependent they are on their parents. In ducks, geese, the ratites and ground-nesting birds such as the plovers, chickens and turkeys, the chicks are mobile and able to feed themselves (precocial) almost as soon as they've hatched. At the other end of the scale, many passerines are helpless on hatching and are entirely dependent on their parents for food and shelter (altricial) for several weeks.

As the birds evolved and diversified, they tended to become smaller and also more altricial. This reduction in body size and increased altriciality are reflected in the genomes. It was these transitional changed that the researchers detected.

These major changes were occurring within 3-5 million years after the mass extinction.

Refuting Creationism - Interactions Between Earth’s Early Life Forms And The Environment - Over 500 million Years Before 'Creation Week'

AI-generated image of what the ocean may have looked like during the Paleozoic era, around 500 million years ago.

AI-generated image of ancient phytoplankton in oxygen rich seawater.

Scientists Untangle Interactions Between the Earth’s Early Life Forms and the Environment over 500 million Years - College of Arts & Sciences at Syracuse University

One of creationism's problems is that, by insisting the Universe is only 10,000 years old or less, they place 99.9975% of Earth's history in that very long, pre-Creation period when, according to their mythology, there wasn't any history.

This, of course, is trivially easy to refute simply by finding evidence of something that happened during this period, and since almost all of history did, this is not much of challenge.

As I've remarked before, creationism is not a problem for science; science is a problem for creationism - which is why creationists spend almost all their time attacking science and lying about it to get new recruits, while all science need do is produce a few facts now and then - something it does incidentally, without even thinking about creationism.

Refuting Creationism - Evolution Observed As Killifish On Trinidad Respond To Predation

A stream in Trinidad, typical killifish habitat

Killifish are highly adaptable to their surroundings

Fish adjust reproduction in response to predators - News Center - The University of Texas at Arlington

The killifish on the Caribbean island of Trinidad are ideal subjects for studying evolution because they can quickly adapt to environmental change. Some have even become amphibious, spending time out of water, probably to avoid predation, while others lay their eggs out of water on damp moss as an evolved adaptation to predation. However, eggs out of water bear the additional risk of desiccation which needs to be balanced against the risk of predation in water.

This paper by Professor Matthew R. Walsh, a biology professor at the University of Texas at Arlington, Arlington, TX, USA and his laboratory technician, Christopher Roden shows that the eggs of fish that lay them out of water hatch earlier than those in water, reducing the risk of desiccation, showing how predation has driven a change in the rate of embryo development to reduce the risk of desiccation, while avoiding predation.

Their findings are published open access in Proceedings of the Royal Society B and explained in the University of Texas press release:

Refuting Creationism - Why Ammonites Went Extinct - 66 Million Years Before 'Creation Week'

Ammonites basking under the Late Cretaceous sun

Artwork by Callum Pursall (@cpursall on X)

Ammonites basking under the Late Cretaceous sun.>

Artwork by Callum Pursall (@cpursall on X)

June: Ammonites wiped out with dinosaurs | News and features | University of Bristol

Yet more evidence incidentally refuting creationism was published two days ago in the journal Nature Communications. That wasn't the intention of the palaeobiologists who presented them, of course, but the facts they presented simply did that by being entirely inconsistent with creationism and at variance with what the facts would be if creationism had any merit.

The paper, by a research team led by palaeontologists at the University of Bristol, concerns the extinction of the ammonites, apparently very suddenly on a geological time-scale. It had previously been thought that their decline had been a slow, gradual process but the evidence found by the researchers is that it was as sudden as that of the non-avian dinosaurs and caused by the same random astronomical event - a meteor strike, 66 million years ago.

The resulting climate change caused a mass extinction at the end of the Cretaceous and the start of the Palaeogene - the so-called K-Pg boundary. (K for Kreidezeit - German).

The ammonites were cephalopod molluscs related to octopuses, squids and the nautiluses and were a major predator in Cretaceous seas. Judging by the abundance of their fossils which I have picked up in fields in Buckinghamshire, they were common and widespread. On holiday some years ago on the north coast of Somerset, my children and I once spent several hours on the beach at Watchet, breaking open pieces of slate to discover ammonites inside them. My children were excited to think they were the first humans to look at each ammonite as we exposed them for the first time in maybe 100 million years.

However, when it comes to assessing the abundance and diversity of extinct orders such as ammonites, local abundance or rarity can be misleading, because it can lead to sampling bias where a local collection of fossils can be mistaken for a general abundance and a local absence can be wrongly extrapolated to indicate a general scarcity. The authors used techniques to minimise this bias in their reassessment of the rate of extinction of ammonites.

Refuting Creationism - The 40-Million-Year History of Biodiversity in The Indo-Australian Archipelago

Vibrant marine life in the Coral Triangle region of Sabah, Malaysia, showcasing the area's remarkable biodiversity.

Photo credit: David M. Baker.

Stunning coral formations captured in the waters of the Coral Triangle, Sabah, Malaysia.

Photo credit: David M. Baker.

HKU Ecologists Reconstruct the History of Biodiversity in the Indo-Australian Archipelago and its Rise as a Hotspot - Press Releases - Media - HKU

If you're a creationist fraud trying to fool more scientifically-illiterate simpletons into joining your cult and giving you money so you don't need to earn an honest living, the last thing you need is this constant deluge of evidence refuting your claims that Earth is only a few thousand years old and everything on it was magically created as it is today.

And yet here we have yet another refutation in the form of a research paper detailing the 20-million-year history of one of the most biodiverse places on Earth - the 'Indo-Australian Archipelago', also called 'The Coral Triangle'.

The Indo-Australian Archipelago has been described as a biodiversity hot-spot because it contains so many examples of radiating evolution over the last 20 million years.

Creationism in Crisis - How Homo Sapiens Helped Bonelli's Eagle Extend Its Range - 40,000 Years Before Creation Week

Bonelli's Eagle, Aquila fasciata

F. David Carmona

Bonelli's Eagle, Aquila fasciata

F. David Carmona

Early "Homo sapiens" facilitated the establishment of the Bonelli's eagle in the Mediterranean 50,000 years ago - Canal UGR

Not only is there no sign at all that the conversion of leading biologists to creationism's childish fairy tale in place of the scientific Theory of Evolution, that creationist cult leaders have been assuring their dupes is imminent - and has been for the last 50 years or so - it's as though they've never even heard of it. They still keep finding evidence of events that happened ten of thousand, even tens of millions of years before the Universe existed, according to the ludicrous creation myths they are supposedly about to adopt. And those events are frequently evidence of evolution or recent human history.

Imagine a serious, grown-up scientist who has been through university, with so much contrary information at his or her fingertips believing that account of magic creation 10,000 years ago written by ignorant Bronze Age pastoralists yet belonging to the creation cult requires fools to believe such an absurdity.

About 9 months ago while on holidat near Bezier, France, we were driving to Carcassonnes when, about a mile apart, we saw two majestic eagles that neither of us recognised. I now know they were Bonelli's eagles, and I probably have the activities of early Homo sapiens about 40,000 years ago to thank for them being there.

A study led by scientists from the University of Granada (UGR), Spain, shows how the activities of early Homo sapiens in the Iberian Peninsula, 40,000 years before creationists think their god created a universe consisting of a small, flat planet with a dome over it in the Middle East, may well have facilitated the expansion of the range of Bonelli's Eagle, Aquila fasciata, north of the Mediterranean Basin.

Creationism in Crisis - How The Human Heart Evolved As Humans Adapted To An Active Life-Style

Study on architecture of heart offers new understanding of human evolution - Swansea University

According to research by an international team from Swansea University, Swansea, Glamorgan, Wales and the University of British Columbia, Okanagan, Canada, there is evidence that the human heart has evolved to facilitate the more active life-style of humans compared to their closest relatives, as they diversified.

Humans typically have a much more active life-style with a higher resting metabolic rate compared to chimpanzees. We also have larger brains. As hunter-gatherers, we typically walked and ran far more often and for much longer than do the other apes and we needed to lose the excess body heat this activity generated, so we needed a more hemodynamic heart able to meet those needs, which meant adaptations to changes in the twisting of the left ventricle (LV) - the chamber which pumps oxygenated blood around the body - during systole, and this meant a change in the degree of trabeculation inside the LV.

In the context of heart ventricles, what are trabeculae and what is their function? Trabeculae (also known as trabeculae carneae) are irregular ridges of muscle found on the inner walls of the ventricles of the heart. They play several important roles in the function of the heart:

1. Structural Support: Trabeculae carneae help reinforce the ventricular walls. Their irregular structure provides additional strength and prevents the walls from sticking together during contraction, thereby maintaining the heart's shape and integrity.
2. Facilitation of Blood Flow: The trabeculae carneae create a more turbulent flow of blood within the ventricles, which can help with the efficient mixing of blood and ensure a more thorough contraction and expulsion of blood from the ventricles during systole.
3. Conduction System: Some trabeculae carneae are involved in the conduction system of the heart. For example, the moderator band (a type of trabecula) in the right ventricle contains part of the right bundle branch of the bundle of His. This helps coordinate the contraction of the right ventricle by ensuring that the electrical impulses are transmitted efficiently.
4. Reduction of Blood Stagnation: By creating a complex surface within the ventricles, trabeculae carneae reduce the likelihood of blood stagnation, which can prevent clot formation and improve overall blood flow dynamics.

In summary, trabeculae carneae serve to strengthen the ventricular walls, enhance blood flow, support the heart's electrical conduction system, and reduce the risk of blood clots by preventing blood from pooling in the ventricles.

What is meant by 'ventricular twist'?

'Ventricular twist' refers to the complex motion of the heart's ventricles during the cardiac cycle, particularly during the contraction (systole) and relaxation (diastole) phases. This twisting motion is also known as 'ventricular torsion' or 'ventricular rotation.' Here’s a more detailed explanation:

Mechanics of Ventricular Twist

1. Twisting Motion During Systole: During systole, the ventricles contract to pump blood out of the heart. The base (the top part of the ventricles, near the atria) of the heart rotates in a counterclockwise direction (when viewed from the apex), while the apex (the bottom tip of the heart) rotates in a clockwise direction. This results in a wringing motion, similar to wringing out a wet towel.
2. Untwisting Motion During Diastole: During diastole, the ventricles relax and fill with blood. The previously twisted ventricles now untwist, helping to create a suction effect that aids in the efficient filling of the ventricles with blood.

Significance of Ventricular Twist

1. Efficient Blood Ejection: The twisting motion enhances the efficiency of the heart’s pumping action. By adding a rotational component to the contraction, the heart can expel blood more forcefully and completely.
2. Diastolic Suction: The untwisting or recoil of the ventricles during diastole contributes to the rapid filling phase. This elastic recoil generates a negative pressure that helps draw blood into the ventricles more efficiently.
3. Mechanical Synchrony: The coordinated twisting and untwisting ensure that the contraction and relaxation phases are well-synchronized, promoting optimal cardiac function and maintaining a steady and efficient blood flow throughout the body.
4. Clinical Relevance: Abnormalities in ventricular twist mechanics can be indicative of various cardiac pathologies, such as heart failure, myocardial infarction, or cardiomyopathies. Therefore, measuring and analyzing ventricular twist can provide valuable diagnostic and prognostic information.

Measurement of Ventricular Twist
Ventricular twist can be assessed using advanced imaging techniques such as speckle-tracking echocardiography (STE) or cardiac magnetic resonance imaging (MRI). These techniques allow for detailed visualization and quantification of the rotational mechanics of the heart.

In summary, ventricular twist is a crucial aspect of the heart’s mechanics, contributing to the efficient ejection and filling of blood in the ventricles. It is essential for maintaining optimal cardiac function and can be an important parameter in the assessment of heart health.

The team has shown there is a negative correlation between the degree of trabeculation and LV systolic twist. The inner wall of the LV of a healthy human heart is comparatively smooth. Their results are published in the journal Communications Biology and explained in a Swansea University News release:

An international research team from Swansea University and UBC Okanagan (UBCO) has uncovered a new insight into human evolution by comparing humans’ hearts with those of other great apes.

Despite humans and non-human great apes having a common ancestor, the former has evolved larger brains and the ability to walk or run upright on two feet to travel long distances, likely to hunt.

Now, through a new comparative study of the form and function of the heart, published in Communications Biology, researchers believe they have discovered another piece of the evolutionary puzzle.

The team compared the human heart with those of our closest evolutionary relatives, including chimpanzees, orangutans, gorillas, and bonobos cared for at wildlife sanctuaries in Africa and zoos throughout Europe.

During these great apes' routine veterinary procedures, the team used echocardiography—a cardiac ultrasound—to produce images of the left ventricle, the chamber of the heart that pumps blood around the body. Within the non-human great ape's left ventricle, bundles of muscle extend into the chamber, called trabeculations.

The left ventricle of a healthy human is relatively smooth, with predominantly compact muscle compared to the more trabeculated, mesh-like network in the non-human great apes. The difference is most pronounced at the apex, the bottom of the heart, where we found approximately four times the trabeculation in non-human great apes compared to humans.

Bryony Curry, first author
Centre for Heart, Lung and Vascular Health
School of Health and Exercise Sciences
University of British Columbia, Kelowna, BC, Canada.

The team also measured the heart's movement and velocities using speckle-tracking echocardiography, an imaging technique that traces the pattern of the cardiac muscle as it contracts and relaxes.

We found that the degree of trabeculation in the heart was related to the amount of deformation, rotation and twist. In other words, in humans, who have the least trabeculation, we observed comparatively greater cardiac function. This finding supports our hypothesis that the human heart may have evolved away from the structure of other non-human great apes to meet the higher demands of humans’ unique ecological niche.

Bryony Curry.

A human’s larger brain and greater physical activity compared to other great apes can also be linked to higher metabolic demand, which requires a heart that can pump a greater volume of blood to the body.

Similarly, Higher blood flow contributes to humans’ ability to cool down, as blood vessels close to the skin dilate—observed as flushing of the skin—and lose heat to the air.

In evolutionary terms, our findings may suggest selective pressure was placed on the human heart to adapt to meet the demands of walking upright and managing thermal stress.

What remains unclear is how the more trabeculated hearts of non-human great apes may be adaptive to their own ecological niches. Perhaps it’s a remaining structure of the ancestral heart, though, in nature, form most often serves a function.

Dr Aimee Drane, co-corresponding author
International Primate Heart Project
Cardiff Metropolitan University, Cardiff, UK
And Faculty of Medicine
Health and Life Sciences
Swansea University, Swansea, UK

The research team is grateful to the staff and volunteers who care for the animals in the study, including the teams at Tchimpounga Wildlife Sanctuary (Congo), Chimfunshi Wildlife Sanctuary (Zambia), Tacugama Chimpanzee Sanctuary (Sierra Leone), Nyaru Menteng Orangutan Rescue and Rehabilitation Center (Borneo), the Zoological Society of London (UK), Paignton Zoo (UK), Bristol Zoo Gardens (UK), Burgers’ Zoo (Netherlands) and Wilhelma Zoo (Germany).

Abstract
Although the gross morphology of the heart is conserved across mammals, subtle interspecific variations exist in the cardiac phenotype, which may reflect evolutionary divergence among closely-related species. Here, we compare the left ventricle (LV) across all extant members of the Hominidae taxon, using 2D echocardiography, to gain insight into the evolution of the human heart. We present compelling evidence that the human LV has diverged away from a more trabeculated phenotype present in all other great apes, towards a ventricular wall with proportionally greater compact myocardium, which was corroborated by post-mortem chimpanzee (Pan troglodytes) hearts. Speckle-tracking echocardiographic analyses identified a negative curvilinear relationship between the degree of trabeculation and LV systolic twist, revealing lower rotational mechanics in the trabeculated non-human great ape LV. This divergent evolution of the human heart may have facilitated the augmentation of cardiac output to support the metabolic and thermoregulatory demands of the human ecological niche.

Introduction
Mammals are a remarkably diverse class of vertebrates, capable of inhabiting every major biome on the planet. This diversity is associated with a vast range of environmental stressors and interspecific differences in posture and locomotion, creating very different hemodynamic challenges. Despite this remarkable diversity, the gross structure of the mammalian heart is highly conserved across species; retaining four chambers and a complete interatrial and interventricular septum¹.

Although the gross structure of the mammalian heart is conserved, interspecific features exist. For example, heart shape varies considerably across species, from broad and flat in whales to long and narrow in terrestrial ungulates2. Variation in the cardiac phenotype is also present among closely-related mammals², indicative of evolutionary divergence. While comprehensive data examining cardiac structure and function across the entire Hominidae taxon do not exist, preliminary work suggests that the left ventricle (LV) of adult male chimpanzees (Pan troglodytes) may be morphologically distinct from that of humans³. Prominent myocardial trabeculations, characterized by protrusions of the endocardium into the LV cavity with intertrabecular recesses, were previously observed in adult male chimpanzees³. This trabeculated phenotype differs from the relatively smoother ventricular wall typically observed in healthy humans⁴, suggesting that there may have been species-specific selective pressures on the heart during the evolution of Hominidae³.

Cardiac morphology and function are closely linked⁵; therefore, the discrete structural attributes of the chimpanzee and human LV likely coincide with differences in systolic and diastolic ventricular function. Such interspecific cardiac phenotypes may be the result of selection for the hemodynamic demands associated with each species’ ecological niche (i.e., the habitat and the role a species plays within an ecosystem). Indeed, previous data has shown that resting metabolic rate⁶, physical activity and daily locomotion⁷ are far greater in humans in comparison with other great apes, and so it is not surprising that cardiac output is also comparatively higher in humans³. The larger cardiac output in humans is likely supported by comparatively greater LV systolic and diastolic function (e.g., myocardial rotation and deformation), including LV twist³. LV twist, which is dependent upon the helical angulation of the aggregated cardiomyocytes^8,9,10, is characterized by counter-directional rotation of the LV base and apex during systole. Together with the velocity of LV untwisting during diastole, LV twist helps facilitate efficient filling and ejection of the ventricle, especially during periods of heightened metabolic and thermoregulatory demand^11,12.

The functional advantages associated with a LV capable of greater twist and untwisting velocity, combined with the preliminary data in adult male chimpanzees³, prompt the hypothesis that the human heart has diverged from a trabeculated ancestral phenotype to support the specific metabolic and thermoregulatory demands of the human niche. To test this hypothesis, we compared LV structure across all extant great apes using 2D echocardiography and further explored trabeculation in a subset of post-mortem chimpanzee (Pan troglodytes) hearts. We then compared LV rotation and deformation between human and non-human great apes to explore whether the trabeculated phenotype is associated with differences in LV systolic and diastolic functional mechanics. Our findings point to evolutionary divergence of the human LV away from the phenotype of all other non-human great apes, which may have had important implications for cardiac function in early humans.

Discussion (part of)

[…]

Collectively, the findings of this study support evolutionary divergence of the human LV away from a trabeculated ancestral phenotype, towards a ventricular wall with a proportionately greater compact myocardium. We propose that this adaptive evolution occurred to support the requirements of the human ecological niche, including an augmented cardiac output to facilitate sustained bipedal physical activity, a larger brain, and the associated metabolic and thermoregulatory demands.

Fig. 1: Comparison of left ventricular trabeculation in great apes.

The bullseye plots represent the trabecular:compact (T:C) ratio for each segment of the left ventricle. The outer layer of the bullseye plots represents the basal segments, the middle and innermost layers represent the midpapillary and apical segments of the left ventricle, respectively. Red segments correspond to an average T:C ratio of >2; orange segments correspond to an average T:C ratio >1.5–2; yellow segments correspond to an average T:C ratio of >1–1.5; green segments correspond to an average T:C ratio of >0.5–1; blue segments correspond to an average T:C ratio of <0.05. Echocardiographic images of the parasternal short-axis at the apex are shown at end-diastole. *No data were available for the basal or midpapillary segments in the orangutans due to artifact from laryngeal air sacs. †These T:C ratios compare favorably with other reports in healthy human cohorts, ranging from 0.2 to 0.9^65,66. ‡Anatomical labels have been provided in accordance with the conventional guidelines for cardiac chamber quantification by the American Society of Echocardiography and European Association of Cardiovascular Imaging⁵². However, we note that this clinical convention does not align with the recognized anatomical approach and may result in confusion across disciplines—see ref. ⁶⁷ for further clarification.

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Fig. 2: Graphical representation of the trabecular:compact (T:C) ratio for each segment of the left ventricle in chimpanzees.

The outer layer of the bullseye plots represents the basal segments, the middle and innermost layers represent the midpapillary and apical segments of the left ventricle, respectively. Red segments correspond to an average T:C ratio of >2; orange segments correspond to an average T:C ratio >1.5–2; yellow segments correspond to an average T:C ratio of >1–1.5; green segments correspond to an average T:C ratio of >0.5–1; blue segments correspond to an average T:C ratio of <0.05. Infant age class includes individuals of ≤4 years of age, juveniles between 5–7 years of age, sub-adults between 8-11 years of age and adults ≥12 years of age.

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Fig. 3: Comparison of left ventricular morphology and mechanical indices of ventricular function between chimpanzees and humans.

Shortening along the long axis of the left ventricle (i.e., longitudinal strain) and deformation at the apex (i.e., apical circumferential and apical radial strain) were averaged across a mixed-sex, adult cohort of chimpanzees (n = 136) and represented in maroon. Blue reflects the deformation patterns of a mixed-sex, adult human cohort (n = 34). Dashed line represents aortic valve closure. Gray shading to the left of dashed line represents systole and white represents diastole.

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Fig. 4: Relationship between markers of left ventricular (LV) function and apical trabeculation in the extant Hominidae taxon.

a Peak LV systolic apical rotation, shown in red, in a mixed-sex, adult cohort of humans (male n = 18, female n = 16), chimpanzees (male n = 59, female n = 51), bonobos (male n = 2, female n = 4), gorillas (male n = 4, female n = 6) and orangutans (male n = 10, female n = 6). b Peak LV systolic twist, shown in green, and (c) peak diastolic untwisting velocity, shown in blue, in a cohort of humans (male n = 18, female n = 16), chimpanzees (male n = 47, female n = 43), bonobos (male n = 1, female n = 3) and gorillas (male n = 4, female n = 5). Analyses of LV twist and untwisting velocity were not possible in all individuals, nor any of the orangutans due to artifacts from laryngeal air sacs, hence the reduced sample size. The exponential plateau curve is shown, with the 95% confidence bands represented by the dotted line. The mean and standard error are shown in black for each species.

Curry, B.A., Drane, A.L., Atencia, R. et al.
Left ventricular trabeculation in Hominidae: divergence of the human cardiac phenotype. Commun Biol 7, 682 (2024). https://doi.org/10.1038/s42003-024-06280-9

Copyright: © 2024 The authors.
Published by Springer Nature Ltd. Open access.
Reprinted under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International license (CC BY 4.0)

No crumbs of comfort there for creationists as the authors attribute everything to evolution by natural selection as humans diverged from the other great apes, nor is there any hint of a doubt that such an evolutionary divergence occurred.

The interesting thing from a biologists point of view is how the changes to the human heart reflect changes in our life-style as we adopted an upright gait and a hunter-gatherer life-style, necessitating running and walking long distances with additional demands on our heart to cope with the additional oxygen required and to dissipate the excess heat these activities generated, in addition to the increased demands our large brains were already imposing on our circulatory and thermoregulatory systems.

More work is now needed to understand whether the retention of this degree of trabeculation in the other apes has a benefit or whether it has simply been retained from a common ancestor. If the former, what evolutionary trade-off has there been for humans in losing these benefits?

Creationism in Crisis - Darwinian Evolution in Giraffes Confirmed

Three giraffes in Masai Mara National Park.

Credit: Byrdyak/Wikimedia Commons.
All Rights Reserved.

Female Giraffe, Giraffa camelopardalis, browsing

Credit: Bernard DUPONT via Wikimedia (CC SA-2.0)

Food, not sex, drove the evolution of giraffes’ long neck, new study finds | Penn State University

In a nice illustration of how science works, there had been conflicting explanations for how the Giraffe evolved its long neck, but before creationists get over-excited neither of them were alternatives to evolution; the debate was about the precise drivers of evolution. That the giraffe's neck evolved from a shorter neck of a common ancestor with the related okapi was never in dispute.

One school of thought was the standard Darwinian view that it was the result of an arms race between giraffes and their preferred food plants; the other was slightly more complex, involving female sex selection and the way male giraffes use their necks against rival males with longer neck being a distinct advantage and the winner winning the favours of the females. Since the length of the neck is not strictly sex-linked, meaning it is mostly coded for by genes located on autosomes, rather than on the Y sex chromosome, both males and females benefit from this sex-selection, or so the second school of thought ran.

Now, a team of scientists led by Penn State biologists believe they have resolved this dispute buy, in the time-honoured scientific way, by examining the evidence and letting it speak for itself. What they found was that females actually have proportionately longer necks than males, so sex selection is unlikely to be the driver. However, what they observed was that females are better able to reach leaves in the crowns of trees and so get the more nutritious food, with obvious benefits for their offspring

The team have published their work, another incidental refutation of creationism that comes from revealing scientific facts, open access, in the journal Mammalian Biology. It is also explained in a Penn State University News release:

Creationism in Crisis - How Marine Worms Caused a Burst in Biodiversity - 480 Million Years Before 'Creation Week'

Marine worm

Getty Images

The Ordovician Biota

Johns Hopkins scientists pinpoint an unlikely hero in evolution: Worms | Hub

Creationists often try to misrepresent the so-called 'Cambrian Explosion' - the relatively rapid radiation of different taxa over a period of some 6 million years when the first hard body parts evolved and by the end of which all the progenitors of the main modern taxa had appeared - as a sudden event, happening almost overnight, where major taxons suddenly appeared without ancestors, as some sort of evidence of intelligent design.

This is nonsense of course, as the 'explosion' took some 6-10 million years and was preceded by the Ediacaran biota, but what they don't seem to realise is that this period was followed fairly soon after by another period of rapid evolution and increased biodiversity in the 'Ordovician Explosion' or the 'Great Ordovician Biodiversification Event' (GOBE) when the same basic forces that produced the Cambrian explosion continued for another 25 million years.

Creationism in Crisis - How Baobab Trees Evolved and Dispersed Over 21 Million Years

Baobab trees

Alex Antonelli (Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew)

Madagascan baobab trees.

The origin and long-distance travels of upside down trees - Queen Mary University of London

The baobab or 'upside down' trees, mostly of Madagascar, are an interesting example of how species radiate and evolve to fit different available niches in their immediate environment, but the genus also contains some examples of remarkable migrations and one example of the founder effect in evolution where a new species can arise by going through a very narrow genetic bottle neck where a new population is founded on an atypical sample of the parent species genome.

The evolution of the genus also includes examples of how, as species diverge, there is a period during which they can still hybridize and how hybrids themselves can be the foundation of new species.

Evolution News - How Tiger Beetles Have Evolved an Unusual Form of Batsian Mimicry - Or Is This Unintelligent Design?

Tiger beetles are fierce predators, running quickly after smaller insects and crushing them with their large mandibles.

Photo: Geena Hill.

Tiger beetle, Lophyra sp.

Muhammad Mahdi Karim - Own work via Wikimedia (GFDL 1.2)

Tiger beetles fight off bat attacks with ultrasonic mimicry – Research News

The idea of predator-prey arms races is of course entirely inconsistent with the childish notion of intelligent design, because constantly designing solutions to problems you created earlier as solutions to even earlier problems you created, is not an act of intelligence.

And yet creationists continue to believe in intelligent [sic] design despite the abundance of these competitive arms races in the natural world.

It seems they have no difficulty in holding several pairs of mutually contradictory views of their putative designer god simultaneously. It is supremely intelligent and acts in ways that can only be described as supremely stupid.

It is omnibenevolent but designs ways to increase the suffering in the world with its parasites; it is omnipotent but powerless against another supernatural designer called 'sin'; and by the way, it is the only supernatural entity capable of designing living thing, so 'evidence' of design (i.e. something a creationist can't understand how it could have evolved) is proof of its existence.

Creationism in Crisis - Batty Evolution On Solomon Islands

Islands in the Vona Vona Lagoon of the New Georgia Group, Solomon Islands. This island group hosts four species of Hipposideros bats, including the two featured in the study of convergent evolution across the archipelago.

Credit: RG Moyle

Diadem leaf-nosed bat, Hipposideros diadema

Michael Pennay via Wikimedia (CC BY 2.0)

Researchers parse oddity of distantly related bats in Solomon Islands that appear identical | KU News

There is something strange about the Solomon Islands, lying east of Papua New Guinea and northeast of Australia. The bats that inhabit the islands seem to have evolved in ways that are difficult to understand.

Before creationists get over-excited and think we've found an example of species that didn't evolve but were made by magic, the question is not whether they evolved, but how? The scientists are in no doubt that the process was an evolutionary one and show no signs of concluding that a supernatural entity was involved. The puzzle is that genetically distinct species on different islands, occupying the same niche, have evolved such a high degree of phenotypic convergence that they are almost indistinguishable, so were previously classified as the same species, although genetically they are not even close relatives. The question is what is it about the environment on these islands that has driven this high level of convergence.

Each of the islands in the archipelago has a population of bats, usually 3-5 species on each island, consisting of a small, medium and large species and on islands with four species, an extra-large. One island has five species so gets an extra small bat.

That all seemed fairly straightforward on the assumption that the five distinct species had each found a niche on each island, and they certainly looked identical when comparing the different sized bats on each island. However, that was before we had DNA sequencing techniques.

DNA analysis has shown that the large bats on different islands, although identical in appearance, are not closely related - they have converged on that appearance from different ancestral bats.

This was discovered by a research team of scientists from University of Melbourne, Australia, the University of Kansas, USA, Jame Cook University, Australia and others. Their work is published open access in the journal, Evolution (the National Journal of Organic Evolution). It is explained in a University of Kansas news release: