Creationism Refuted - DNA Shows Hidden Human Connections Across Europe - 20,000 Years Before 'Creation Week'

AI-generated depiction of Gravettian life at the Isturitz Cave, southwest France

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Ancient human DNA reveals hidden connections across Ice Age Europe

Location of the sampled individuals and estimated dates. The map was obtained from https://mapswire.com under a CC BY 4.0 license (https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/)

More than 30,000 years ago, people living in Ice Age Europe were leaving genetic evidence of connections between widely separated populations — tens of thousands of years before the world supposedly existed, according to the familiar young-Earth creationist interpretation of Genesis. Their descendants inherited traces of those encounters, and scientists can now recover those traces from ancient human remains. What emerges is a history of migration, interbreeding and survival through changing climates, on a timescale wholly incompatible with a recent creation followed by a global flood and the repopulation of Earth by Noah’s family.

The evidence comes from a study led by researchers at the University of Vienna, published in Science Advances. A woman who lived around 30,000 years ago, whose remains were found in Isturitz Cave in south-western France, carried predominantly western European ancestry, together with ancestry related to populations farther east. Assuming a single pulse of admixture, genetic modelling places that exchange approximately 32,500–31,500 years ago. This does not mean that the woman herself crossed Europe: her genome preserves evidence of connections between ancestral populations.

The researchers also recovered human nuclear DNA from an approximately 22,000-year-old sediment layer at El Mirón Cave in northern Spain, despite the absence of human bones or teeth. This supports the persistence of western European ancestry through the Last Glacial Maximum. Regional continuity and incoming ancestry could therefore coexist: populations could maintain deep local roots while also exchanging genes with other groups.

For biblical literalism, the difficulty extends beyond finding room for another inconveniently ancient date. Here are distinguishable populations, an inferred episode of interbreeding and evidence of ancestry persisting through a major climatic upheaval. These findings belong to a reconstructable human history stretching far beyond the few thousand years allowed by young-Earth chronology. Compressing that history into a post-Flood dispersal would require evidence for the compression, not simply a declaration that the biblical account must be correct.

Refuting Creationism - Violent Death But Also Care And Compassion in Neanderthal Society - No Religious Handbook Required

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[credit]

Neanderthal scapula with spear hole.

View of Shanidar Cave from approximately the south.

Photo: G. Barker.

Fatal Neanderthal wound may be earliest evidence of a wooden spear attack on a human ancestor | University of Cambridge

Some 75,000 years ago, a Neanderthal in what is now Iraqi Kurdistan survived a devastating facial injury, apparently with help from others, only to suffer a probably fatal penetrating wound later in life. The remains preserve a striking combination of vulnerability, probable compassion and possible interpersonal violence: recognisably human behaviour from a time tens of thousands of years before the biblical creation story places the beginning of human history.

The individual, designated Shanidar A, is described in a new paper in Scientific Reports. Researchers led by Dr Emma Pomeroy identified a roughly circular, 15-millimetre-wide perforation in the left shoulder blade, consistent with a sharpened wooden spear entering through the chest and passing through the body. The injury occurred around the time of death and was probably lethal. Its position and the force required suggest a deliberate attack, although a hunting accident remains a possibility. The evidence supports a violent death; it does not supply the identity or intentions of whoever held the spear.

Earlier in life, Shanidar A had suffered a severe blow to the mouth, splitting a lower incisor lengthways. Subsequent wear and the accumulation of dental calculus show that the individual survived the injury for a considerable period. Given the likely pain and difficulty eating, the researchers suggest that survival involved care from companions. This is not a fossilised moral code, nor proof that Neanderthals thought exactly as we do. It is, however, evidence consistent with practical compassion in an extinct human lineage closely related to our own. The capacity to help an injured companion evidently has a much deeper history than the religious traditions that now claim ownership of morality.

For young-Earth creationism, the chronology is already fatal: these events occurred around 69,000 years before the supposed creation of the Universe in the familiar six-thousand-year chronology. The archaeological context adds another difficulty. Fragile remains survived within a cave sequence that researchers can investigate in detail, including evidence that a local flash flood disturbed the bones after decomposition. That is evidence of a particular event in a particular landscape, not of a recent worldwide deluge. Any attempt to impose the biblical catastrophe on this record must explain the actual sequence of deposition, decay, disturbance and preservation, rather than treating every mention of flooding as confirmation of Genesis.

Creationism Refuted - Horizontal Gene Transfer From A Giant Virus Into Our Complex-Celled Ancestor

AI-generated representation of a giant DNA virus, its host and a potassium channel.

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Viruses as master builders of complex proteins – TU Darmstadt

Where do new genes and complex proteins come from? For intelligent design creationists, gaps in our knowledge are opportunities to invoke a supernatural designer. For scientists, they are opportunities to investigate. A discovery reported in PNAS illustrates the difference: researchers have identified a functional protein in a giant virus that offers clues to the evolutionary origins of a more elaborate family of cellular proteins.

The proteins concerned are tandem potassium channels, which allow potassium ions to cross cell membranes. In humans, members of this family help stabilise the electrical potential across membranes and regulate the excitability of nerve cells. Their distinctive architecture includes two linked pore-forming domains within each protein subunit. Although simpler precursors of other potassium-channel families are known from bacteria, the evolutionary origins of this tandem arrangement have remained uncertain.

The researchers found a gene encoding such a channel in Pyramimonas orientalis virus, which infects a single-celled marine alga. Its protein, named Kpov, contains just 178 amino acids, yet experiments in artificial membranes confirmed that it functions as an ion channel with a preference for potassium over sodium. Here, then, is a comparatively simple working version of a molecular structure associated with more elaborate cellular machinery.

The evolutionary analysis adds a particularly interesting twist. The results suggest that the virus did not simply acquire this gene recently from its host. Instead, the channel may have originated through the fusion of simpler viral pore-forming components. This supports the possibility that viruses have contributed both genetic material and molecular innovations to cellular evolution.

Creationism Refuted - Now It's Transitional Dinosaur Egg Shells - From 195 Million Years Before 'Creation Week'

An imaginative AI-generated reconstruction of a basal sauropodomorph beside a clutch of eggs in Early Jurassic woodland, approximately 195 million years ago.

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Fig. 1 | Localities of Sinemurian basal sauropodomorph eggs/eggshells, stratigraphic section of the Zhangjiawa Member (Lufeng Formation, Dawa Dinosaur Mountain), and the rock containing Mutabilisoolithus dawaensis and associated embryonic skeletons.

From: Di, Z., Wang, H., Wang, T. et al (2026).

A team led by Di Zhiyong from the School of Life Sciences at Hebei University, in collaboration with others, spent six years meticulously analyzing the world's oldest and most complete amniotic eggshell structure.

Creationism thrives on gaps because it is easy to fool scientifically illiterate people looking for confirmation for their pre-exiting bias with a god of gaps and a false dichotomy fallacy. But one massive gap they invariably ignore is the gap between the real start of the history of life on Earth some 3.8 billion years ago and the mythical 'Creation Week' 6,000-10,000 years ago, as the Bible narrative claims. This means it's easy to refute creationist beliefs simply by discovering evidence from the long pre-'Creation Week' history.

Other gaps creationists crave are the ones that transitional fossils fill, hence creationists insistence that such transitional fossils are missing, despite them regularly being found by palaeontologists, as reported in this blog and the scientific journals. This article then will have creationists performing all manner of intellectual gymnastics to try to minimise it or ignore it altogether.

Some 195 million years ago, in what is now Yunnan, China, an early dinosaur laid eggs with a revealing combination of features: a thick organic membrane and a thin mineralised layer that had not formed a rigid, interlocking shell. These eggs pre-date the supposed creation of the Universe in the conventional young-Earth biblical chronology by almost their entire existence. They also preserve something creationists repeatedly insist is missing from the fossil record: an intermediate condition illuminating an evolutionary transition.

The fossil eggshell, named Mutabilisoolithus dawaensis, is described by Zhiyong Di and colleagues in a paper published in Nature Communications. Associated with an early-diverging sauropodomorph dinosaur, it combines flexibility with a limited degree of biomineralisation — the biological deposition of minerals. Its thin calcareous layer consists of shell units that do not interlock, while its underlying membrane is exceptionally thick. This is a soft eggshell, but “soft” does not mean entirely devoid of mineral reinforcement.

Refuting Creationism - How Our Complex Cells Evolved

3D volume segmentations of Cryo-electron tomogram slice of Methanocalculus. Red, ferritin-like granules; yellow, actin filaments

From: Imachi, H., Nobu, M.K., Ishii, S. et al. (2026).

How could a comparatively simple cell give rise to the elaborate internal organisation found in the cells of animals, plants, fungi and other eukaryotes? For creationists, this is another opportunity to insert a supernatural designer into an unanswered question. For scientists, it is an invitation to investigate. A new study has now brought that investigation a significant step forward by cultivating two strains of microbes belonging to one of our closest known archaeal relatives.

The research, led by Hiroyuki Imachi and Masaru K. Nobu of the Japan Agency for Marine-Earth Science and Technology, with colleagues including Satoshi Nakagawa of Kyoto University, was published in Nature on 28 October 2026. The organisms belong to Heimdallarchaeia, within the group widely known as Asgard archaea, now formally classified as Promethearchaeota.

What makes these organisms especially informative is the combination of internal simplicity and elaborate external structures. They lack a nucleus and persistent internal membrane systems, yet produce long, branching membrane protrusions. They also depend on metabolic partnerships with other microorganisms. Their biology therefore provides a way to investigate how close associations between initially separate cells could have helped set the stage for a much more intimate evolutionary partnership.

Endosymbiosis involves one organism living inside another. In the case of eukaryotic origins, a bacterial partner eventually became the mitochondrion. The outstanding questions concern how that relationship began and how it became integrated with changes in the host cell. These new findings support scenarios in which the archaeal host was still internally simple, with much of eukaryotic cellular complexity developing during or after the establishment of that partnership.

How To Tell The Bible Is Wrong - Simply Compare it To Observable Reality

Stars brewing in a nebulous cauldron | ESA/Webb

Webb’s NIRCam is the observatory’s primary camera, and can simultaneously image the cosmos in two different infrared ranges. Taking advantage of Webb’s exquisite image quality and large primary mirror, the instrument has acquired some of the deepest (i.e. farthest away) near-infrared images ever obtained, detecting light from the first stars and galaxies.

Curiously, although creationists are notoriously reluctant to fact-check anything their cult tells them, most of them would have little difficulty understanding that the best way to check a claim made by another person is to look at the tangible evidence. For example, told that Lincoln Memorial in Washington DC is really only three feet tall, even a creationist could understand that simply by looking at it, it is easy to see that the claim is wrong.

However, asked to apply the same test to claims in the Bible, most creationists will flatly refuse, or will assert that the evidence must be wrong - the equivalent of asserting that the Lincoln Memorial might look taller than three feet, but that appearance is deceiving.

For example, the following comparison between the Bible's claim and the observable reality, should tell any rational person that the Bible is wrong. Not so a creationists who will simply assert that the evidence is wrong and refuse to look at it, or even claim that the creator of the evidence just made it look that way to test them, so the evidence itself become part of an imaginary conspiracy to make them change their minds.

Here's then is a quick reminder that the Bible was written by simple people who tried to fill the gaps in their knowledge and understanding with imaginative stories. The problem was, the stories they made up were based on ignorance and tradition, not on a scientific analysis of the evidence. Not surprisingly, their stories were little better than the stories you would get if you asked a five year old to describe the universe and explain why it's like it is. This much should be readily apparent to any person honest enough to base opinions on evidence, not on unevidenced claims, simply to conform to popular dogma.

This is illustrated most simply by comparing the description of the Universe in the Bible with the real universe being revealed in every greater detail by science. In the Bible, the universe is described as consisting of a small flat planet with a dome over it at the centre, and the moon and stars and all other celestial bodies from planets to galaxies described as lights stuck to the dome, all created by magic just a few thousand years earlier. The entire construction was imagined to be surrounded by water, which the dome, in addition to being something to stick the celestial bodies too, was there to keep out.

So, compare that description with a tiny fragment of the real, dynamic and expanding universe - a star-forming region named LHA 120-N 159, or simply N159, located 161,000 light-years away in the Large Magellanic Cloud (LMC), one of the satellite galaxies orbiting the Milky Way galaxy.

This image spans about 230 light years across.

Refuting Creationism - Early Humans Lived In The Jordan Valley - 1.9 Million Years Before 'Creation Week'

A bifacial stone tool from ‘Ubeidiya

Credit: Omry Barzilai

A specialized imaging technique reveals mineral layers preserved within a fossilized Melanopsis shell (sample UB1).

Credit: Perach Nuriel

Study Finds 1.9 Million Year Out-of-Africa Migration wave leaves its mark in the Jordan Valley | EUROPEAN FRIENDS OF THE HEBREW UNIVERSITY

Long before anyone composed the biblical creation stories, early members of our genus were making stone tools and inhabiting the Jordan Valley. Research on the prehistoric site of ‘Ubeidiya, south of the Sea of Galilee, now suggests that this chapter of human history began earlier than previously thought — probably more than 1.9 million years ago. The landscape subsequently woven into biblical tradition preserves a much older history, written in sediments, fossils and archaeological remains.

The research, published in Quaternary Science Reviews brings together cosmogenic burial dating, ancient magnetic signatures and uranium–lead dating of fossil freshwater snail shells. Their combined interpretation favours an older chronology for the site, with implications for when tool-making hominins dispersed beyond Africa.

These inhabitants were not modern Homo sapiens. They were earlier members of our genus, probably associated with the Homo erectus/ergaster group, although the surviving fossils do not justify an unqualified species identification. Their presence, together with the site's Acheulean stone tools, contributes to an increasingly detailed picture of early human expansion into Eurasia.

Refuting Creationism - More On Denisovans Exposes Moronic Creationism

An artist's reconstruction of what a Denisovan might have looked like.

Image credit: Institute of Vertebrate Paleontology and Paleoanthropology / Chinese Academy of Sciences

Chinese Scientists Solve Puzzle of Identifying Extinct Group of Hominins----Chinese Academy of Sciences

One of the strengths of science is its willingness to leave a question open until there is enough evidence to answer it. An incomplete picture is an invitation to investigate, and an explanation that changes when new evidence emerges is a demonstration that the method is working. The developing story of the Denisovans provides an excellent example: an extinct group of humans is acquiring a clearer identity through the patient accumulation and comparison of evidence.

As a Xinhua report reproduced by the Chinese Academy of Sciences explains, Denisovans were first identified in 2010 through DNA recovered from a tiny finger bone found in Siberia. Scientists could recognise a distinct evolutionary lineage before they had much idea of what its members looked like. That imbalance between molecular knowledge and anatomical knowledge presented a problem that further discoveries and improved analytical methods could address.

Bible Blunder - People Were Sailing Boats Around the Mediterranean Years Before The Genocidal Flood

AI-generated depiction of Noah's Ark, based on a literal reading of Genesis 6:14-16

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Noah's Ark, exactly as described in Genesis 6:14-16.

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World’s oldest shipwreck discovered off coast of Turkey

One awkward question about the biblical story of Noah’s Ark is what happened to everyone else who owned a boat. In a world where people built vessels, transported goods by sea and made their living on the water, why should rising water have left just one family afloat? Genesis asserts that everyone outside the Ark perished, but offers no account of the other sailors, fishermen and boatbuilders whose existence makes that exclusive survival rather less straightforward than the story suggests.

A shipwreck discovered off the coast of southern Turkey gives that question an archaeological context. Near Kekova, researchers have identified the remains of a cargo provisionally dated to around 2700–2400 BCE, potentially making this the oldest known shipwreck. The wooden vessel has disappeared, but its pottery survives, providing evidence of maritime commerce in the Early Bronze Age. On the familiar chronology of Archbishop James Ussher, which places the supposed global flood in 2348 BCE, this trading vessel was already on the seabed before Noah’s legendary voyage began.

This was evidently a vessel operating within a world of established maritime connections. As archaeologist Karin Sowada explains in the article reproduced below, Egyptian texts and archaeological finds already document overseas trade during this period. Ships carried commodities between coastal communities, supported by the practical knowledge of people who knew how to build boats, handle cargoes and undertake sea voyages. Noah, on the creationists’ preferred timetable, would hardly have inhabited a world in which keeping people and provisions afloat was an unprecedented idea.

There is an important distinction here. The existence of other boats does not establish that their occupants could have survived the entire catastrophe described in Genesis. A vessel suitable for coastal commerce was not necessarily equipped to remain at sea for months without access to fresh supplies or somewhere to land. Nor does Genesis explicitly claim that Noah owned the only boat. What the evidence does expose is an unanswered question: why did every other vessel and every other experienced seafarer fail, while Noah’s household alone survived? Simply repeating the story’s assertion that everyone else died does not provide an independent explanation.

Unintelligent Design - A Marine Amphibian With an Evolutionary Past - 237 MIllion Years Before 'Creation Week'

AI-assisted rendering of Gerrothorax maritumus, informed by newly discovered fossil evidence of the creature, which is the first fully marine amphibian on record. AI was used to adjust lighting, brightness, fish skin and amphibian skin.

Chen Geng/Guizhou University

New fossil evidence reveals the first fully marine amphibian, Gerrothorax maritimus, which dates to the Late Triassic period nearly 237 million years ago. The animal had a flattened body that was covered in bony armor, a potential defense mechanism against predators like ichthyosaurs.

Credit: Ryosuke Motani, UC Davis.

Researchers Unearth Fossil Evidence of First Fully Marine Amphibian | UC Davis

Why would an omniscient designer give an animal the inherited anatomy of a four-limbed vertebrate, then adapt that anatomy for life on the seabed? Evolution has a straightforward explanation: descendants inherit structures from their ancestors, and natural selection modifies what is already available. An unrestricted designer, supposedly capable of anticipating every requirement, has no comparable constraint. Yet nature repeatedly presents us with organisms whose bodies make sense as products of history.

A newly described amphibian adds another intriguing example. According to research, published in Nature Ecology & Evolution, Gerrothorax maritimus, an armoured amphibian that lived approximately 237 million years ago, presents evidence for a fully marine existence in a group whose living representatives have no equivalent ocean-going species.

The evidence includes two remarkably complete skeletons from Guizhou Province, China, marine sediments deposited far from major land masses, and strontium isotope proportions consistent with Triassic seawater. Together, these observations support an animal that inhabited the sea, rather than a freshwater carcass that happened to wash into it.

Creationism Refuted - Eland Collagen in Ocre In A South African Cave - From 50,000 Years Before 'Creation Week'

The Kilpdrift Complex located within the coastal cliffs in the De Hoop Nature Reserve, South Africa, where the samples for the study were collected.

Credit: Ole F. Unhammer
Universitetet i Bergen

Common eland, Taurotragus oryx

Credit: David Clode / Unsplash.

Antelope collagen found in 60,000-year-old ochre offers clues to early human practices

Some 60,000 years ago, humans occupying a shelter in southern Africa left behind traces of activities that modern science is only now learning to recover. An ochre-rich surface at Kilpdrift Shelter preserves proteins identified as belonging to the common eland, Taurotragus oryx, a large African antelope.

For those who insist that the entire Universe was created only a few thousand years ago, the difficulty begins before we even consider what these people were doing: they were already there, handling animal materials and ochre, tens of thousands of years before the supposed creation of their ancestors.

The discovery is described in a paper published in Proceedings of the Royal Society B by researchers from Kyushu University, the University of Bergen and the University of Copenhagen.

What that contribution represents remains an open question. Animal-derived material may have been deliberately mixed with ochre, or the surface may preserve traces of eland hides treated with it. The finding establishes an association between ochre and animal material; it does not, by itself, establish a particular recipe, a hide-processing technique or a symbolic purpose. Nevertheless, it opens a valuable window onto the technical, and possibly symbolic, behaviour of early Homo sapiens, particularly in environments where ancient DNA is poorly preserved.

Here, then, is another example of archaeology producing inconvenient evidence for biblical literalism simply by investigating the human past. The researchers are asking what people did, which materials they used and how surviving molecules can help reconstruct their activities. There is room for uncertainty about the precise activity recorded on this ancient surface. That uncertainty is not permission to compress 60,000 years of human history into a creationist chronology of six to ten thousand years.

Creationism in Crisis - Yet Another Of Those 'Non-Existent' Transitional Fossils - From 165 Million Years Before 'Creation Week'

Reconstruction of Sinojapyx giganteus.

Jie Sun.

Palaeoecological reconstruction of Sinojapyx giganteus.

Jie Sun.

Jurassic Giant Dipluran Reveals the evolution of Hexapods---- Nanjing Institute of Geology and Palaeontology Chinese Academy of Sciences

Another of those transitional forms that creationists insist are missing, has turned up in the fossil record — this time in the shape of a Jurassic relative of insects with an informative combination of ancestral mouthparts and developing tail pincers. Named Sinojapyx giganteus, it lived approximately 165 million years ago, presenting young-Earth creationism with two familiar problems: evidence of evolutionary transition and a chronology irreconcilable with a literal reading of Genesis.

The discovery, described in a paper in Proceedings of the Royal Society B is a fossil from the Middle Jurassic Daohugou deposits of Inner Mongolia, China. More than five centimetres long, it is the oldest confirmed dipluran and the largest fossil representative yet described. Diplurans, sometimes called two-pronged bristletails, are six-legged relatives of insects, rather than insects themselves.

Its evolutionary significance lies in the details. Living diplurans have mouthparts enclosed within the head, but those of Sinojapyx were exposed. Its paired rear appendages, known as cerci, were already pincer-like, yet remained symmetrical and lacked the small teeth characteristic of the more specialised pincers of modern japygoids. The researchers place it on the stem lineage of this living group and interpret its cerci as an intermediate condition in the evolution of sensory appendages into specialised grasping weapons.

This is what a transitional fossil actually looks like: a functioning animal with a mixture of ancestral and derived characteristics. It does not need to be an implausible hybrid of two modern species, nor must palaeontologists demonstrate that this particular species was the direct ancestor of a living one. Its significance is that it preserves an anatomical combination which helps reconstruct how later specialisations evolved. Dismissing it as “still a dipluran” would miss the point entirely: evolution within a lineage does not require its descendants to cease belonging to that lineage.

Creationism Refuted - Fish And Newts Share A Common Gene for Fin and LImb Growth - Common Origin

AI-generated depiction of common genetic origin of zebra fish and Iberian ribbed newts.

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The findings support a stepwise model for how the genetic program that builds vertebrate paired fins and limbs may have evolved. An ancestral Hox9–10 program may first have helped establish posterior appendages, later expanded into a broader Hox patterning system, and eventually been redeployed in anterior paired appendages.

Image after H. Nakazawa et al., (2026) CC BY-NC-ND.

Ancient Hox code reveals the developmental roots of vertebrate hind fins and limbs | EurekAlert!

Creationists who insist that fish and terrestrial vertebrates are separately created “kinds” have another piece of evidence to explain away. Beneath the obvious differences between a fish’s pelvic fins and an amphibian’s hindlimbs lies a shared developmental inheritance: related genes performing an essential early role in establishing the cells from which those structures develop. Evolutionary relationships are recorded not only in fossils and adult anatomy, but also in the processes that build living bodies.

This is illustrated by research led by scientists at Saitama University, Japan, published in Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences (PNAS). The researchers investigated Hox genes, regulatory genes involved in organising the developing body. Their experiments reveal a shared requirement for members of the Hox9–10 groups at the beginning of pelvic-fin and hindlimb development.

In zebrafish, disrupting five of these genes together eliminated the detectable populations of pelvic-fin progenitor cells—the cells that would normally give rise to the developing fins—and the pelvic fins failed to form. In Iberian ribbed newts, disrupting seven related genes likewise impaired the establishment of hindlimb progenitors. These results support the inference that this developmental function was already present in the common ancestor of ray-finned and lobe-finned vertebrates, before the evolutionary separation of the lineages represented by zebrafish and newts.

The significance extends beyond the discovery that different animals use related genes. The findings help connect the genetic programme that organises the rear of the body with the programme that initiates its paired hind appendages. They are consistent with an evolutionary model in which an ancestral programme was recruited, expanded and redeployed as the developmental machinery of paired fins and limbs evolved. The experiments do not directly reconstruct that entire historical sequence, but they provide functional evidence with which to assess it.

For intelligent design creationism, the familiar difficulty is that evolutionary innovation need not involve inventing every component afresh. Existing genes and developmental relationships can acquire additional roles as evolution modifies inherited systems. Calling those systems “designed” supplies no comparable account of when, where or how the changes occurred, nor does it improve the experimental explanation.

Refuting Creationism - A Continuous Record Of Climate History In A Peruvian Cave - From 440,000 Years Before 'Creation Week'

Professor Elizabeth Olson collecting drip waters inside Haugapo cave in the Peruvian Andes

Past and future Milankovitch cycles via VSOP model Graphic shows variations in five orbital elements:

Axial tilt or obliquity (ε).

Eccentricity (e).

Longitude of perihelion (sin(ϖ)).

Precession index (e sin(ϖ)) Precession index and obliquity control insolation at each latitude:

Daily-average insolation at top of atmosphere on summer solstice () at 65° N Ocean sediment and Antarctic ice strata record ancient sea levels and temperatures: Benthic forams (57 widespread locations) Vostok ice core (Antarctica) Vertical gray line shows present (2000 CE)

By Incredio - Own work, CC BY 3.0, Link

News and Events | Geosciences | Union College

Another awkward chapter in Earth's history has emerged from the darkness of Peruvian caves — and it stretches back some 450,000 years. For young-Earth creationists, that is an inconvenient amount of climate history to squeeze into a universe supposedly created only a few thousand years ago. For scientists, it is an opportunity to investigate how the rainfall systems on which ecosystems and human societies depend respond to a changing planet.

The research, published in Nature was led by Elizabeth Olson, a former postdoctoral researcher at Union who is now at Wesleyan University. The team examined stalagmites from caves in the Peruvian Andes, using their chemical composition to reconstruct the history of the South American summer monsoon. The resulting record has an average resolution of about 50 years, providing an unusually detailed view of changes across several glacial–interglacial cycles.

Stalagmites grow upwards as dripping water deposits minerals on cave floors. As they accumulate, their layers can preserve changes in oxygen-isotope composition that reflect the climatic history of the water reaching the cave. Uranium–thorium dating provides the chronology, while the oxygen isotopes provide evidence of past monsoon behaviour. These are complementary measurements: the researchers are reading a dated chemical archive, not simply assuming that every stalagmite grows at a constant rate.

Location of caves where speleothems were recovered.

Credit:Olson, E.J., et al (2026)

Comparison with Asian cave records reveals that the two monsoon systems generally varied in opposite directions, against a background of Milankovitch forcing — the changes in the distribution of incoming sunlight associated with Earth's orbital and axial cycles. But the relationship was not fixed. The researchers identified ten episodes of unusually synchronous behaviour, including during transitions out of ice ages. Changes in greenhouse gases, ocean temperatures and temperature differences between the hemispheres probably contributed to these departures from the usual pattern.

Unintelligent Design - Discovering The Rules Of Evolutionary Arms Races - No Intelligence Found

AI-depiction of a celestial designer confused by its unintelligently designed arms race

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Uncovering the Rules of a Genetic Arms Race | HHMI

Creationists who claim that biologists are abandoning the Theory of Evolution in favour of intelligent design might benefit from looking at what biologists actually do, if only they could find the courage to read some actual science.

A good place to start would be the research of Howard Hughes Medical Institute investigator Harmit Malik and his colleagues, who investigate how genetic conflicts drive evolutionary change. Here, evolution is a working scientific framework: it supplies questions, generates testable predictions and helps researchers explain their experimental results.

No supernatural designer is required.

A study led by Tamanash Bhattacharya and published in Science Advances describes this research programme. Working with Sindbis virus, the researchers investigated how an unusual genetic stop signal helps the virus evade its hosts’ immune defences.

This signal, known as the opal stop codon, helps maintain the integrity of tiny compartments in which the virus copies its RNA, shielding that RNA from immune detection. Its importance therefore depends on the opposition the virus encounters. In mosquito cells with functioning antiviral defences, selection strongly favoured viruses carrying the stop signal. Within five days — approximately 24 rounds of replication — viruses that had regained it almost completely replaced a variant lacking it. When the relevant host defence was disabled, the selective advantage changed, and variants without the stop signal could prevail.

That is evolution measured in the laboratory: heritable variation, differential reproductive success and a resulting change in the genetic composition of a population. The experiment reveals a mechanism through which host immunity shapes viral evolution. It also illustrates why “fitness” has no meaning independently of circumstances. A genetic variant advantageous in one environment can become disadvantageous when that environment changes.

Such conflicts make straightforward sense in evolutionary terms. Hosts benefit from restricting infection, while viruses benefit from overcoming those restrictions. Over evolutionary time, adaptations on either side can impose selection for counter-adaptations on the other. There is no foresight, agreed destination or concern for the welfare of the opposing side — simply competing lineages leaving different numbers of descendants.

Refuting Creationism - Self-Assembly of A Complex Protein Without a Plan - No Magic Required!

AI-generated depiction of protein sub-units assembling to form a shell

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New method reveals how virus particles can build themselves, molecule by molecule | Oxford University

One of creationism’s favourite arguments depends on treating chemistry as a lottery in which every conceivable molecular arrangement is equally likely, and the winning combination must appear in a single lucky throw. Count enough possible combinations, announce an astronomical improbability, and declare that a supernatural designer must have intervened. Apart from the obvious false dichotomy fallacy, What this argument ignores is precisely what matters: molecules have physical and chemical properties that make some interactions more likely than others, and complex structures can assemble through successive intermediate stages, in a process that parallels the trial and error of evolution.

Research by scientists at the University of Oxford provides a striking illustration. In a study published open access in Nature, the team followed the assembly of an engineered virus-like particle containing 60 protein units. Using a technique that measures molecular mass through scattered light, they tracked individual particles as they grew. The advance was being able to observe the intermediate steps of a process whose beginning and end are much easier to study.

The components initially form weak, reversible associations. Unstable arrangements can break apart, leaving their components available for further encounters. Certain closed arrangements, however, gain stability through multiple connections. These become intermediate stages from which assembly can proceed. The result is a physically constrained pathway through a huge range of possibilities, without machinery directing the placement of every component, all depending on the relative strengths and weaknesses of chemical bonds.

There is an instructive parallel here with evolution, provided we recognise its limits. Molecular assembly does not involve reproduction, inherited variation and differential reproductive success, so it is not Darwinian evolution. Nevertheless, both expose the weakness of imagining that a complex outcome must arise in one wholly random step. “Trial and error” is useful shorthand: unsuccessful arrangements need not persist, while stable intermediates can support further construction. Neither molecules nor natural selection need to anticipate the eventual result.

Unintelligent Design News - How RNA Can Harm The Cell - Incompetence, Malevolence Or Evolution?

AI-generated illustration of RNA overload.

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Too much RNA can starve cells of energy, study finds – Texas A&M Stories

What sort of omniscient designer would make a cell dependent on a molecule that, when allowed to accumulate, can damage its energy-generating machinery? Presumably, one who could foresee the problem would also be capable of avoiding it. Yet research from Texas A&M University reveals precisely this vulnerability: RNA, indispensable to the functioning of living cells, can interfere with mitochondrial energy production when its abundance escapes normal control.

The findings, published in Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences (PNAS) concern the relationship between RNA turnover and mitochondrial function. Messenger RNA carries instructions used to manufacture proteins, but those messages must also be broken down. The researchers found that this disposal process does more than regulate gene expression: it helps protect the machinery that supplies much of a cell’s usable energy.

Working with vaccinia virus, the team found that disrupting the breakdown of RNA allowed it to accumulate and severely impaired mitochondrial respiration. Further experiments showed that excess messenger RNA and double-stranded RNA could impair mitochondria even outside intact cells. The effect therefore did not require the usual antiviral immune responses. Excess RNA reduced mitochondrial membrane potential, a crucial component of the energy gradient used to make ATP. Precisely how RNA produces this disruption remains to be established.

This is not a case of cells having no safeguards. They have elaborate systems for controlling RNA abundance. The difficulty for intelligent design is that an essential component can become a threat to another essential component, leaving the cell dependent on continual regulation and clearance. Calling the safeguards evidence of brilliant design merely invites the question of why an all-knowing, all-powerful designer chose an arrangement with this vulnerability in the first place.

There is no comparable puzzle for evolution. Natural selection has no foresight, no drawing board and no opportunity to start again with an entirely different biochemistry. It acts on heritable variation in existing systems, favouring changes whose effects improve reproductive success under prevailing conditions. Benefits can outweigh costs without eliminating them, and a mechanism that works adequately under ordinary circumstances can remain vulnerable when conditions change. This study illustrates such a vulnerability; it does not establish the precise historical trade-offs that produced it.

Refuting Creationism - The Blind Cave Snail That Evolved by LOSS of Information

Erhaia dijiang.

Credit: Yue-Ming He, et al., 2026

Erhaia dijiang.

Credit Yue-Ming He, et al., 2026.

China’s First Cave-Dwelling Freshwater Snail Named After A Mythical Mountain God | Pensoft Blog

A tiny, eyeless snail living in a Chinese cave offers an instructive challenge to two familiar creationist assumptions: that evolution must mean increasing complexity, and that the natural world was arranged for the benefit of humans. Erhaia dijiang has neither eyes nor body pigmentation, and its existence remained unknown to science until researchers investigated its obscure underground habitat. For an animal supposedly included in a creation designed around us, it has kept a remarkably low profile.

Described by Yue-Ming He and colleagues in Subterranean Biology, the species was discovered in a cave in Yuxi City, Yunnan Province, at an altitude of 2,062 metres. It is reported as China's first recorded freshwater cave snail. Its translucent shell, unpigmented body and absence of eyes are characteristic of an animal specialised for subterranean life. Appropriately, its name honours Di Jiang, a faceless being from Chinese mythology.

The evolutionary lesson is straightforward: evolution has no obligation to produce increasingly elaborate organisms. It can involve the reduction or loss of structures, just as it can produce new structures or modify existing ones. Eyes are useful where there is light to see by; in permanent darkness, their usual advantage disappears. Selection maintaining functional eyes can consequently weaken, allowing mutations that impair them to persist. Where reduced investment in unnecessary structures improves reproductive success, natural selection can also favour that reduction. The precise contributions of these processes have not been established for this particular snail, but its eyeless condition fits a familiar pattern of evolution in subterranean animals.

Comparable reductions occur in many parasites, including the loss of digestive structures in animals that absorb nutrients from their hosts. This is not evolution going backwards: evolution has no predetermined destination from which to retreat. Nor does losing one organ mean that an animal has become simpler in every respect. It means that particular features have changed within a particular ecological setting. Calling such changes “degeneration”, as creationists often do, does not place them outside evolutionary biology or explain them away.

Refuting Creationism - Closing The Gap - Life In The Early Ediacaran - 600 Million Years Before 'Creation Week'

Macrofossils from the Doushantuo formation at Ancangping. A–F: Ribbon-shaped vendotaenids. G: Conotubular Protoconites minor H: Balloon-shaped Longfengshania. I: Tangled filaments similar to Zunyiphyton.

Ye, Q., An, Z., Chen, S. et al (2026)

Microfossils from the Ancangping assemblage. A: Schizofusa zangwenlongii. B, C: Ericiasphaera magna (C is enlarged view of rectangle in B). D, E: Appendisphaera anguina. (E is enlarged view of rectangle in D). F: Eotylotopalla strobilata. G: Eotylotopalla quadrata. H: Megasphaera ornata. I: Sinosphaera asteriformis. J, K: Tanarium cuspidatum. (K is enlarged view of rectangle in J).

Credit: Ye, Q., An, Z., Chen, S. et al (2026)

Tiny fossils reveal a missing chapter of ocean life after Snowball Earth

More than 600 million years before the supposed creation of Earth in a literal reading of Genesis, marine communities were already living through the aftermath of a planetary ice age. Their fossilised remains now provide another inconvenient glimpse of the immense history that young-Earth creationism requires its followers to dismiss. This was a world with an evolutionary past of its own, long before the appearance of familiar animals, let alone humans and their origin myths.

A study by Qin Ye of the China University of Geosciences in Wuhan and colleagues, published in Communications Biology, describes an assemblage of microscopic and larger fossils from Ancangping in Hubei province, South China. The researchers identified 35 species of organic-walled microfossils known as acritarchs, together with six broad forms of macroscopic fossils. Preserved together, these remains provide an unusually useful window into communities that included both organisms living in the water column and algae growing on the seabed.

The assemblage is provisionally dated to approximately 620–610 million years ago. That places it around 15–25 million years after the end of the Marinoan glaciation, one of the extreme climatic episodes associated with “Snowball Earth”, when ice extended into tropical latitudes. “After” therefore needs to be understood on a geological timescale: even the interval between the thaw and these organisms exceeds the entire young-Earth creationist chronology many thousands of times over.

Refuting Creationism - A Peculiar Belemnite From Wyoming - 160 Million Years Before 'Creation Week'

AI-generated impression of Wyoteuthis linsterorum in the Sundance Sea

ChatGPT-6 Astra

Artists impression of Wyoteuthis linsterorum

Jasom C Poole.

“Peculiar” new species of Jurassic squid found in Wyoming

Some 160 million years ago, a peculiar, thick-bodied relative of modern squid inhabited the sea that covered parts of what is now Wyoming. That alone places it inconveniently far outside the few thousand years allowed by a literal reading of Genesis. Now, two rare fossils have revealed that this animal was also a late-surviving representative of an ancient belemnite lineage — another small but revealing piece of an evolutionary history that creationism requires its followers to deny.

The newly described species, Wyoteuthis linsterorum, is the subject of a paper in Papers in Palaeontology. Although the headline calls it a Jurassic squid, it was a belemnite: a member of an extinct group of squid-like cephalopods. Its most striking feature was its exceptionally broad internal shell component, known as the rostrum or guard. Where familiar belemnite guards resemble slender bullets, these specimens are unusually stout, earning their owner the distinction of having the thickest known belemnite guards.

The fossils come from the Sundance Formation and date to the Oxfordian stage of the Late Jurassic. Examination of their external features and CT scans of their interiors led the researchers to assign the animal to the Megateuthididae, a family that had largely disappeared earlier in the Jurassic. Rather than representing a newly created form appearing from nowhere, Wyoteuthis appears to have been a surviving offshoot of an older evolutionary lineage, persisting in a regional refuge after its relatives had declined elsewhere.

For young-Earth creationism, the chronological problem is straightforward. An animal living approximately 160 million years ago cannot be accommodated within a universe supposedly created just 6,000–10,000 years ago. Nor does calling its remains a product of Noah’s Flood explain away the geological succession in which they occur. The problem is not merely the existence of a marine fossil on dry land, but its place within an ordered history of changing environments and successive assemblages of organisms.

Refuting Creationism - How Evolution Explains The Nightjar's Wing - No Magic Needed

European nightjar, Caprimulgus europaeus

The nightjar needs to be able to fly both long distances and at lower speeds.

Photo: Urban Rundström.

Nightjar wings reveal a trade-off between hunting slowly and travelling far | Lund University

Evolution does not produce organisms that are perfect at everything. Natural selection acts on inherited variation, and an improvement in one function can come at a cost to another. A bird that must both migrate over long distances and catch insects in slow, manoeuvrable flight faces competing aerodynamic demands. The European nightjar, Caprimulgus europaeus, provides a revealing example of how these demands can produce a workable compromise.

As described in a news release from Lund University, the nightjar travels between Europe and southern Africa, yet uses the same wings to pursue flying insects at low speeds. Efficient travelling and slow-speed hunting do not necessarily favour identical wing shapes. Features that help the bird remain airborne while moving slowly can impose an aerodynamic penalty when it flies faster.

The research, published in PLOS Biology, investigated this compromise by measuring the airflow behind nightjars flying in a wind tunnel. At cruising speeds, the researchers detected an unusual double wingtip vortex associated with less efficient lift generation. They interpret this as a cost of the bird’s broad, slotted wingtips: a shape likely to help generate lift during slow flight and hovering, but which produces a less favourable distribution of lift at higher speeds.

Creationism Refuted - Humans Were Leaving Footprints In Lakeside Mud 11,000 Years Before 'Creation Week'

Artist's rendition of the landscape at White Sands during the last Ice Age.

Karen Carr

Fig. 2. Ancient human footprints and other ichnological features.

(A) A large canid track superimposed on a human footprint excavated on TH3. Photo Credit: K.B.S., US Geological Survey (USGS). (B) Linear features (LF) on TH2 that have been interpreted as travois pulled by humans, presumably during transport of resources (2). Photo Credit: K.B.S., USGS. (C) Orthomosaic of the surface of TP15 showing human footprints (Photo Credit: M.R.B., Bournemouth University). (D) Color rendered height map of multiple human footprints on TH0. (E) Color rendered height map of human footprints on TH(−3).

From: Kathleen B. Springer et al.(2026).

Footprints in the (white) sand: Humans experienced abrupt environmental shifts during the last ice age | University of Arizona News

More than 20,000 years before the present, people were walking along a lakeshore in what is now New Mexico, leaving footprints that would eventually become a serious inconvenience for biblical literalists. At White Sands National Park, those tracks preserve evidence of human lives during the Last Glacial Maximum — long before the supposed creation of the Universe in the chronology favoured by young-Earth creationists, let alone their alleged global flood and subsequent repopulation of the Americas.

Now, research published open access in Science Advances reaffirms that the footprints date to approximately 23,500–21,700 years ago. It also reconstructs a changing landscape: retreating Lake Otero, shifts from conifer forest towards steppe vegetation, and episodes of severe aridity. Some changes occurred within a human lifetime. These were people inhabiting a dynamic Ice Age environment, leaving their tracks alongside those of mammoths, giant sloths and dire wolves.

The history of the dating is itself an instructive example of how science works. The original age estimates, announced in 2021, attracted criticism because they relied on seeds from aquatic plants. Such plants can absorb dissolved ancient carbon, potentially making radiocarbon dates appear older than they really are. That was a legitimate methodological objection, and the appropriate response was to test it. A follow-up study reported in 2023 used pollen from terrestrial conifers and an independent technique that measures when mineral grains were last exposed to sunlight. Both supported the ancient chronology.

Creationism Refuted - Dinosaur Tracks Record Transition From Crawling to Bipedalism

Holotype of Pachychirotherium gardenaensis

Photo: @ University La Sapienza of Roma.

From Sprawling to Bipedalism: How Locomotion Evolved in Dinosaur Ancestors - Museum für Naturkunde Berlin

One of the familiar refrains of creationism is that the fossil record contains no transitional forms. Yet transitions need not be preserved only in bones: sometimes, animals left evidence of evolutionary change in the footprints they made. A new study of ancient reptile tracks reveals a stepwise acquisition of features associated with upright locomotion — changes that helped establish the conditions for the later evolution of two-legged movement in dinosaurs and their close relatives.

The research, by Lorenzo Marchetti of the Museum für Naturkunde Berlin and Hendrik Klein of the Saurierwelt Paläontologisches Museum, is published in Palaeontology, concerns early archosauriforms, members of the wider evolutionary group that includes archosaurs — dinosaurs, pterosaurs, crocodilians and their relatives. Their history extends back into the Late Permian, more than 250 million years ago: already an insurmountable chronological problem for a literal reading of Genesis.

Marchetti and Klein re-examined footprints from the Val Gardena Sandstone Formation of northern Italy, including previously undescribed specimens, and recognised a distinctive track type, which they named Pachychirotherium gardenaensis. This is a name for the fossil traces, rather than a newly identified species of skeletal animal. Comparisons with fossil feet suggest that their makers were early archosauriforms with an anatomy resembling that of erythrosuchids.

The wider comparison with Permian and Triassic tracks is particularly revealing. Late Permian forms retain evidence consistent with sprawling locomotion; some Early Triassic forms show transitional characteristics; and a fully erect stance probably emerged during the Middle Triassic. Increasing reliance on the toes, changes in toe proportions and a reduction in the relative size of the forefoot impressions accompanied this evolutionary transition. These features were assembled progressively, rather than appearing together as a completed package.

Refuting Creationism - Kyushu, Japan Was Devastated By A Volcano 73,000 Years Ago - But There Is No Trace Of Noah's Global Flood

Mount Iō, Iōjima, Japan, on the edge of the Kikai caldera

By 名古屋太郎 - Own work, CC BY-SA 3.0, Link

Kikai caldera (dotted outline) is mostly below sea level. Iōjima in on its northern rim.

By Batholith - Topographic data: NASA's SRTM-1 30m Mesh (ver.3 2014) Rendering software: KASHMIR 3D, Public Domain, Link

How one of Earth’s worst volcanic disasters affected societies | Lund University

A real catastrophe leaves evidence. In prehistoric Japan, an enormous volcanic eruption left a recognisable layer of ash, devastated ecosystems and disrupted human communities. Thousands of years later, archaeologists can still investigate its consequences. Yet the supposedly global catastrophe described in Genesis — a flood intended to destroy almost all terrestrial life — finds no corresponding place in Japan’s long archaeological history. The contrast could hardly be more awkward for biblical literalism.

The real disaster was the Kikai-Akahoya eruption, which occurred about 7,300 years ago, approximately 5300 BCE. That places it roughly three millennia before the Flood date of 2348 BCE in Archbishop Ussher’s chronology, and even before his supposed creation of the world in 4004 BCE. Japan was already inhabited by Jōmon communities who obtained their food through hunting, fishing and gathering. These were real people living in established societies, confronting a natural disaster in a world that, according to that biblical timetable, did not yet exist.
Now, an international team has investigated how those communities responded. Their findings, published in Science Advances reveal a more complicated history than either universal collapse or undisturbed survival. Southern Kyushu was already experiencing population decline before the eruption, whereas population growth in northern Kyushu continued through the disaster and its aftermath. Some more distant regions experienced stagnation or decline.

How can researchers reconstruct population changes without written records or a prehistoric census? They used radiocarbon dates from archaeological remains as an indirect measure of human activity, analysing their distribution through time and across the landscape with Bayesian statistical models. The underlying principle is that larger populations generally leave more traces of occupation that can subsequently be recovered and dated. Such evidence provides estimates of demographic trends rather than exact headcounts, and its interpretation must allow for dating uncertainty and the limitations of the archaeological record.