Refuting Creationism - A Continuous Record Of Climate History In A Peruvian Cave - From 440,000 Years Before 'Creation Week'

Professor Elizabeth Olson collecting drip waters inside Haugapo cave in the Peruvian Andes

Past and future Milankovitch cycles via VSOP model Graphic shows variations in five orbital elements:

Axial tilt or obliquity (ε).

Eccentricity (e).

Longitude of perihelion (sin(ϖ)).

Precession index (e sin(ϖ)) Precession index and obliquity control insolation at each latitude:

Daily-average insolation at top of atmosphere on summer solstice () at 65° N Ocean sediment and Antarctic ice strata record ancient sea levels and temperatures: Benthic forams (57 widespread locations) Vostok ice core (Antarctica) Vertical gray line shows present (2000 CE)

By Incredio - Own work, CC BY 3.0, Link

News and Events | Geosciences | Union College

Another awkward chapter in Earth's history has emerged from the darkness of Peruvian caves — and it stretches back some 450,000 years. For young-Earth creationists, that is an inconvenient amount of climate history to squeeze into a universe supposedly created only a few thousand years ago. For scientists, it is an opportunity to investigate how the rainfall systems on which ecosystems and human societies depend respond to a changing planet.

The research, published in Nature was led by Elizabeth Olson, a former postdoctoral researcher at Union who is now at Wesleyan University. The team examined stalagmites from caves in the Peruvian Andes, using their chemical composition to reconstruct the history of the South American summer monsoon. The resulting record has an average resolution of about 50 years, providing an unusually detailed view of changes across several glacial–interglacial cycles.

Stalagmites grow upwards as dripping water deposits minerals on cave floors. As they accumulate, their layers can preserve changes in oxygen-isotope composition that reflect the climatic history of the water reaching the cave. Uranium–thorium dating provides the chronology, while the oxygen isotopes provide evidence of past monsoon behaviour. These are complementary measurements: the researchers are reading a dated chemical archive, not simply assuming that every stalagmite grows at a constant rate.

Location of caves where speleothems were recovered.

Credit:Olson, E.J., et al (2026)

Comparison with Asian cave records reveals that the two monsoon systems generally varied in opposite directions, against a background of Milankovitch forcing — the changes in the distribution of incoming sunlight associated with Earth's orbital and axial cycles. But the relationship was not fixed. The researchers identified ten episodes of unusually synchronous behaviour, including during transitions out of ice ages. Changes in greenhouse gases, ocean temperatures and temperature differences between the hemispheres probably contributed to these departures from the usual pattern.

Refuting Creationism - Closing The Gap - Life In The Early Ediacaran - 600 Million Years Before 'Creation Week'

Macrofossils from the Doushantuo formation at Ancangping. A–F: Ribbon-shaped vendotaenids. G: Conotubular Protoconites minor H: Balloon-shaped Longfengshania. I: Tangled filaments similar to Zunyiphyton.

Ye, Q., An, Z., Chen, S. et al (2026)

Microfossils from the Ancangping assemblage. A: Schizofusa zangwenlongii. B, C: Ericiasphaera magna (C is enlarged view of rectangle in B). D, E: Appendisphaera anguina. (E is enlarged view of rectangle in D). F: Eotylotopalla strobilata. G: Eotylotopalla quadrata. H: Megasphaera ornata. I: Sinosphaera asteriformis. J, K: Tanarium cuspidatum. (K is enlarged view of rectangle in J).

Credit: Ye, Q., An, Z., Chen, S. et al (2026)

Tiny fossils reveal a missing chapter of ocean life after Snowball Earth

More than 600 million years before the supposed creation of Earth in a literal reading of Genesis, marine communities were already living through the aftermath of a planetary ice age. Their fossilised remains now provide another inconvenient glimpse of the immense history that young-Earth creationism requires its followers to dismiss. This was a world with an evolutionary past of its own, long before the appearance of familiar animals, let alone humans and their origin myths.

A study by Qin Ye of the China University of Geosciences in Wuhan and colleagues, published in Communications Biology, describes an assemblage of microscopic and larger fossils from Ancangping in Hubei province, South China. The researchers identified 35 species of organic-walled microfossils known as acritarchs, together with six broad forms of macroscopic fossils. Preserved together, these remains provide an unusually useful window into communities that included both organisms living in the water column and algae growing on the seabed.

The assemblage is provisionally dated to approximately 620–610 million years ago. That places it around 15–25 million years after the end of the Marinoan glaciation, one of the extreme climatic episodes associated with “Snowball Earth”, when ice extended into tropical latitudes. “After” therefore needs to be understood on a geological timescale: even the interval between the thaw and these organisms exceeds the entire young-Earth creationist chronology many thousands of times over.

Creationism Refuted - Earth Fine-Tuned For Regular Mass Extinctions - Even In The American Bible-Belt

AAI-generated reconstruction of a Late Devonian coastline, with reef life beneath the distant impact.

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Meteor hit Oklahoma 100 Million Years Later Than Previously Thought | Jackson School of Geosciences | The University of Texas at Austin

A geological map noting the types of rock that make up the Ames impact structure. The locations of oil and gas wells are noted with arrows.

Credit: Catlos et al.

For a planet supposedly created as a perfect home for humans, Earth has a remarkable history of catastrophes, environmental upheavals and mass extinctions — almost all of it unfolding before humans and, according to a literal reading of Genesis, before even Earth itself existed. Beneath Ames, Oklahoma, lies a buried impact crater that adds another uncomfortable detail to that history. New research suggests that the collision responsible occurred about 100 million years later than previously thought. Unfortunately for young-Earth creationists, that still places it approximately 370 million years before their imagined ‘Creation Week’.

The study, led by Elizabeth Catlos of the University of Texas at Austin and published in Meteoritics & Planetary Science, challenges the long-standing assignment of the Ames impact to the Ordovician Period. The previous age estimate relied on conodont fossils — tiny tooth-like elements from extinct marine animals. These may have been inherited from older rocks disturbed and redeposited during the impact, rather than recording when the collision happened.

Uranium–lead dating of zircon crystals from the impacted rocks now points towards a much younger, Late Devonian event. The youngest dated zircons yielded an age of 369.7 ± 5.9 million years. That range overlaps the approximately 372-million-year-old Frasnian–Famennian extinction crisis, raising the possibility that Ames belongs in discussions of impacts associated with that episode of ecological devastation.

There is an essential distinction here: an overlap in estimated ages does not establish cause and effect. The study does not demonstrate that the Ames impact caused the Frasnian–Famennian extinction, or even that it made a substantial contribution. Further work is needed to strengthen the connection between the zircon dates and the impact itself, let alone establish a causal connection with the extinction. That uncertainty is part of the scientific account, not something to hide for the sake of a more dramatic headline.

Nevertheless, the difficulty for creationism does not depend on proving that particular connection. Whether the collision happened in the Ordovician or the Devonian, neither interpretation can be accommodated within the few thousand years allowed by a literalist reading of Genesis. Revising an event’s age by roughly 100 million years does not bring it within reach of biblical chronology. Even the size of the correction dwarfs the entire history young-Earth creationists allow the universe.

Nor does a world exposed to devastating collisions suggest that human safety was its overriding design specification. Humans were absent when Ames formed, but that is precisely the point: Earth’s history was not a brief preparation of a finished home awaiting its intended occupants. It was an immense succession of changing environments in which life survived, diversified and sometimes suffered catastrophic losses. Habitability is not a guarantee of protection, and our existence today does not turn every feature of the planet’s past into evidence of benevolent planning.

Refuting Creationism - Californian Creationists May Be In For A Catastrophic Shock

AI-generated conceptual illustration of tectonic stress beneath Southern California. Subsurface colours represent stress, not molten rock; the scene is not a prediction of a particular earthquake.

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Earthquake model reveals: Stress in California at record level

Californian creationists who imagine that Earth was fine-tuned for human life — and perhaps arranged with their own comfort and security particularly in mind — might want to consider what is happening beneath their feet. A planet supposedly designed as our ideal home has an unfortunate habit of accumulating stresses capable of turning homes, roads and other essential infrastructure into wreckage. Southern California provides a particularly awkward example of this discrepancy between reassuring theology and indifferent geology.

A study published in Journal of Geophysical Research: Solid Earth examines stress accumulation along the southern San Andreas and San Jacinto fault systems. Led by Liliane Burkhard, the researchers combined a reconstructed earthquake history with a computer model that follows changes in three-dimensional space and through time. Their results indicate that some fault segments have reached or exceeded the highest stress levels in the modelled thousand-year history.

Of particular interest is Cajon Pass, northeast of Los Angeles, where the two fault systems approach one another. This junction can behave as an “earthquake gate”: under some conditions, a rupture stops there; under others, it can propagate between fault systems. The research suggests that the relative stresses on neighbouring segments help determine whether this gate remains closed or allows a more extensive rupture. Understanding those interactions matters because the surrounding region contains densely populated communities and major transport and energy routes.

The underlying mechanism requires neither supernatural intervention nor concern for the people living above it. Continuing tectonic movement loads faults whose shallow portions remain locked, allowing stress to accumulate between earthquakes. A long quiet interval is therefore no guarantee of safety. The apparent tranquillity of the landscape can conceal the continuing development of conditions that favour another major rupture.

This is not a prediction that a catastrophic earthquake will happen tomorrow, nor does “record stress” mean that scientists have been measuring these faults continuously for a millennium. These are estimates produced by a model constrained by geological and historical evidence. The researchers explicitly distinguish their assessment from a prediction of when the next earthquake will occur. Its value lies in improving our understanding of possible rupture scenarios and informing preparedness.

Creationism Refuted - A Stem Amphibian from 309 Million Years Before 'Creation Week'.

AI-generated impression of life in Mazon Creek wetland in the Carboniferous Era

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Photo and illustration of the fossil of Jeanerpeton mazonensis.

Credit: Allison Sefcovic. © Field Museum.

Mother of amphibians: New species of proto-amphibian described by two student scientists, named in honor of their moms - Field Museum

One of the recurring problems for young-Earth creationism is that Earth’s history contains so much life before the supposed beginning of Earth’s history. A newly recognised fossil species from Illinois adds another example: a small, amphibian-like animal that lived approximately 309 million years ago, when the area around modern Chicago was a swampy river delta. That places it more than 300 million years before the creation event that biblical literalists insist accounts for all life on Earth. Explaining away a discrepancy of that magnitude requires rather more than pointing to an uncertainty in a scientific paper.

The animal is Jeanerpeton mazonensis, described by Allison J. Sefcovic, Payton J. Kohlberg and colleagues in a new paper in the Journal of Vertebrate Paleontology. Its recognition resulted from a fresh examination of a fossil already held in a museum collection. Previously assigned to Amphibamus grandiceps, the specimen proved sufficiently different in its skull and skeleton to warrant a genus and species of its own. The authors also suggest that other known specimens conceal more diversity among these early amphibamiforms than has previously been recognised.

The fossil comes from the exceptionally productive Mazon Creek deposits. Its preservation includes a body outline, scales, tiny abdominal skeletal elements called gastralia, and even impressions of the eyes. The genus honours the two student lead authors’ mothers, both named Jean. This is a reminder that important discoveries can begin with someone taking a closer look at a specimen collected long ago.

Left: Allison Sefcovic and Payton Kohlberg hold epoxy sculptures of their new species, Jeanerpeton mazonensis.

Photo credit: Arjan Mann. © Field Museum.

Of particular interest are structures previously interpreted as toe pads resembling those of living amphibians. Alongside the skeletal anatomy, such features help researchers investigate the combinations of characteristics present in these ancient animals. That does not establish Jeanerpeton as the direct ancestor of modern frogs or salamanders: resemblance and evolutionary relationship are not proof of direct ancestry. Its significance lies in adding another anatomically distinctive animal to the record against which explanations of amphibian evolution must be tested.

Refuting Creationism - Fossils of Complex Cells In Australian Mudstone - From 1.7 Billion Years Before 'Creation Week'

Layers of 1.7 billion-year-old sedimentary rocks, Kakadu National Park, Northern Territory

Maxwell Lechte

Fossils of single-celled eukaryotic organisms with complex surface features such as extensions and plates.

Leigh Anne Riedman

Tiny fossils found in 1.7 billion-year-old mud yield clues to the evolution of complex life

For young-Earth creationists, some of the most troublesome evidence comes in the smallest packages. Microscopic fossils preserved in ancient Australian mudstones record organisms living approximately 1.75–1.4 billion years ago — an antiquity impossible to reconcile with the few thousand years allowed by a literal reading of the biblical genealogies. These organisms were already part of aLayers of 1.7 billion-year-old sedimentary rocks, Kakadu National Park, Northern Territoryn evolving biosphere more than a billion years before the supposed “Creation Week”. Their existence presents a chronological problem that no amount of argument about the meaning of “kind” can resolve.

These fossils are the subject of a paper in Nature, by Maxwell A. Lechte and colleagues, investigating the environments inhabited by some of the earliest known eukaryotes. Eukaryotes are organisms with structurally complex cells, typically containing a nucleus and specialised internal compartments; they include animals, plants, fungi and numerous microscopic organisms. Here, “complex life” refers to cellular organisation, not to miniature animals swimming through those ancient seas. Understanding these early cells helps explain the evolutionary foundations upon which much later forms of life depended.

Creationism Refuted - How Life Could Have Started On Earth 4.33 Billion Years Before 'Creation Week'

AI-generated impression of the Hadean Bombardment

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New Study Pinpoints When Early Earth May Have Become Ready for Life’s Chemistry - Planetary Science Institute

For creationists who depend on gaps in scientific knowledge, research into the origin of life presents a recurring difficulty: scientists keep finding ways to investigate those gaps. One question is when the early Earth became sufficiently stable for the chemistry preceding life to persist. Producing potentially useful molecules would have achieved little if repeated impacts then destroyed them. Before life could gain a foothold, its chemical ingredients needed somewhere they could survive.

A new study by Oleg Abramov and colleagues, published in Nature Communications investigates that problem using a three-dimensional model of impact heating. The researchers identify approximately 4.33 billion years ago as a particularly favourable time for persistent prebiotic chemistry. That places the proposed opportunity billions of years before the entire universe supposedly appeared in the chronology of Young-Earth creationism.

The emerging picture scarcely resembles a world prepared as a comfortable home for living things. Early Earth endured bombardment by asteroids, comets and leftover planetary building blocks. As that bombardment declined, regions of the shallow crust could remain cool enough for fragile molecules to persist. Around 4.4 billion years ago, the simulations begin to show environments that escaped subsequent reheating above the study’s specified threshold.

There is an interesting complication: impacts could also help create opportunities for life’s chemistry. Water circulating through heated, fractured rock can produce hydrothermal environments with sources of chemical energy. The researchers therefore sought an overlap between enduring cooler regions and continuing hydrothermal activity. Their proposed favourable window represents a changing balance between destructive heating and potentially useful geological activity, with no foresight required.

The distinction between opportunity and occurrence matters. This study does not demonstrate that life began 4.33 billion years ago, nor establish that an “RNA world” actually existed then. It constrains the thermal conditions under which such a proposed stage could have persisted. The date also depends on assumptions about bombardment: a lower estimate of the incoming mass moves the favourable window earlier, towards 4.4 billion years ago.

For creationism, the difficulty extends beyond the enormous timescale. An unanswered question about life’s beginnings is being broken down into physical conditions that researchers can calculate, compare and challenge. Uncertainty remains, but uncertainty supplies questions for further investigation; it supplies no evidence for a supernatural designer. Here, another part of the origin-of-life problem becomes a tractable question about the history of a changing planet.

Refuting Creationism - Earth Fine Tuned For Catastrophe And Mass Extinction

AI-generated impression of a Yellowstone supereruption

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Yellowstone hot spring.

End of humanity? Blow-by-blow account of what would happen if the Yellowstone supervolcano erupted now

One of the more curious creationist claims is that Earth was perfectly designed for human life by an all-powerful, all-knowing and omnibenevolent creator. This comforting picture tends to concentrate on pleasant scenery, sunshine and things we can eat, while overlooking the planet’s considerable capacity to kill us. Yellowstone provides a particularly impressive example of what must be left out of the picture. It tends to be made by those fortunate individuals born to the relative comfort and security of a technologically-advanced society and it of course attributed to the locally-popular god.
Beneath the spectacular landscape of Yellowstone National Park lies a volcanic system whose history includes enormous explosive eruptions. Its most recent caldera-forming eruption occurred approximately 631,000 years ago — long before the supposed ‘Creation Week’ of young-Earth creationism. A comparable event today could devastate surrounding regions, spread ash across large areas of North America and disrupt the global climate, with serious consequences for agriculture. That is an extraordinary feature to include in a world supposedly engineered for our benefit.

None of this means Yellowstone is ‘overdue’ for a supereruption, or that such an event would wipe out humanity. As the US Geological Survey explains, volcanoes do not follow a timetable, and another catastrophic eruption at Yellowstone is by no means inevitable. Scientific accuracy matters here: the argument against benevolent design needs no assistance from exaggerated claims of impending doom. The existence and geological record of these hazards are quite sufficient.

The underlying problem for creationism is the difference between a planet on which humans can live and one perfectly arranged for human welfare. Our existence establishes the former; it does not demonstrate the latter. Evolution provides a straightforward reason why organisms possess adaptations to the environments in which their ancestors survived. It gives us no reason to expect those environments to remain safe, or the physical processes shaping them to take account of our needs.

An omnipotent designer, however, cannot be excused as an engineer forced to work within constraints beyond its control. If the planet’s life-supporting features are to be credited to deliberate benevolence, its destructive features also require an explanation. Pointing to the beauty of Yellowstone while overlooking the processes capable of devastating its surroundings is selective accounting. Invoking a mysterious divine purpose merely assumes the benevolence that the design argument was supposed to establish.

The creationist difficulty remains even without the worst-case details: a habitable Earth is not a promise of a hospitable Earth. Our protection from its hazards depends on understanding natural processes and acting on the evidence — a rather more useful response than assuming that everything was arranged with our welfare in mind.

How Science Works - Scientists Revise The Age Of Mammoth Fossils - But It's Even Worse News For Creationists

AI-generated impression of Columbian mammoths around the sinkhole trap

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The center of the sinkhole has thin laminated sediments and extensive bone galleries. We sampled near here for MS-16-4 and MS-16-5 using metal tubes.

Mahan SA, et al (2026)

Luminescence Data for the Mammoth Site, Black Hills, South Dakota 2016-19 | U.S. Geological Survey

Creationists who seize on revisions in scientific dating as evidence that scientists cannot be trusted might want to read this particular example to the end. A famous mammoth graveyard in South Dakota has indeed been reassessed, and its previously accepted age has been substantially revised. Unfortunately for young-Earth creationism, the revision moves it much further into the past. An age already incompatible with the biblical timetable has become an even greater problem.

In a paper published in Quaternary Research, Shannon A. Mahan and colleagues report new dates for the fossil-bearing sediments at the Mammoth Site in Hot Springs, South Dakota. Long associated with an age of approximately 26,000 years, the deposit now yields luminescence ages of roughly 160,000–232,000 years — around six to nine times that familiar estimate. These are dates for the surrounding sediments, rather than direct measurements of each mammoth’s death, but they place the assemblage in a substantially earlier chapter of the Pleistocene.

How can a fossil’s age change so dramatically? A scientific date is a measurement of a particular physical process. Its reliability depends on choosing suitable material, understanding what happened to it after burial, and checking the result against other evidence.

What was dated originally?

The mammoth bones lacked preserved collagen — the protein commonly used for radiocarbon dating bone. Researchers therefore analysed carbon in the bones’ mineral component, apatite. However, interactions with groundwater can alter that carbon after burial. The resulting measurement may reflect later chemical changes rather than the animal’s death, making ancient remains appear much younger. This is a problem with the sample’s history, not evidence that radioactive decay is unreliable.

What does luminescence measure?

The new study dated feldspar grains in the surrounding sediment. Natural background radiation gradually builds up a trapped-electron signal within these minerals. Sufficient exposure to sunlight empties those traps, effectively resetting the clock. After burial, the signal accumulates again. Measuring it, together with the local radiation dose rate, allows researchers to estimate the time since the grains were last exposed to light.

Does that date the mammoths?

It dates sediment burial, rather than an animal’s death directly. The connection depends on geological evidence that the bones and sediment accumulated together. At the Mammoth Site, the main feldspar results place the fossil-bearing deposits approximately 160,000–232,000 years ago, although the detailed chronology still requires refinement.

Why trust a revised date?

Confidence grows through independent checks, not through refusing to change an answer. Here, analyses at two laboratories and comparisons with earlier dating work exposed weaknesses in the accepted chronology. Further uranium-series dating is planned. Revising an interpretation when better evidence becomes available is precisely how science improves its account of the past.

Sources: Mahan and colleagues, Quaternary Research
Phys.org research report.

As described in Sandee Oster’s report for Phys.org, the site contains more than 60 mammoths, predominantly young male Columbian mammoths. The prevailing explanation is that a warm, spring-fed sinkhole became a lethal trap: animals entering the water could not climb back up its steep, slippery sides. Their remains accumulated in the basin. The earlier radiocarbon measurements were problematic because the bones lacked preserved collagen, leaving researchers to analyse bone apatite, whose carbon can be altered by interaction with groundwater.

The new investigation used infrared-stimulated luminescence dating of feldspar grains, with analyses undertaken at two laboratories. This estimates the time since sediment grains were last exposed to sufficient light to reset their dating signal. The researchers also identify thin sediment layers deposited by runoff entering the pond. Uncertainty remains over the detailed chronology, and further uranium-series work is planned.

For creationists, the awkward point is not merely the increased age. It is how the correction was made. Scientists questioned an established interpretation, investigated the limitations of the material previously dated, and tested the chronology using a different physical process. If dates were simply manufactured to produce predetermined answers, why expose the discrepancy and publish a substantial revision? Here, changing the answer is evidence that the answer remains accountable to observations.

Refuting Creationism - A Day at Hengistbury Head and Millions of Years of Missing Biblical History.

Hengistbury Head, Dorset, UK

© Bournemouth University 2006 - 2026

I have just spent the day at Hengistbury Head in Dorset, where a visit to the coast brings you face to face with a history that young-Earth creationism cannot accommodate. It’s a place where creationists can take a stroll and see for themselves how far removed from reality the creation account in the Bible is.

Long before anyone made a flint tool here, let alone wrote the stories later collected into Genesis, the sediments beneath this familiar headland were accumulating in environments very different from those we see today.

Creationism Refuted - The Evidence That Wouldn't Be There If The Bible Were True - Climate Change Over 130,000 Years

AI-generated image showing sediment accumulating over time on an Australian lakebed.

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Australia’s ancient rainfall patterns more complex than previously believed – News

For creationists who attribute much of Earth’s sedimentary record to a single, year-long global flood, the difficulty goes well beyond explaining how so much sediment accumulated. They also need to explain why natural archives preserve evidence of changing environments over periods vastly longer than their preferred age of the entire Universe. Producing layers of mud is one thing; reproducing a dated history of changing climate is quite another.

A new study by Alexander F. Wall and colleagues, published in Quaternary Science Reviews brings that problem into focus. The researchers analysed 69 natural palaeoenvironmental archives from tropical Australia, collectively spanning the past 130,000 years. Their purpose was to reassess how the complexity of rainfall patterns changed through the last glacial cycle.

Their conclusion challenges the suggestion that rainfall became uniquely variable and geographically patchy during the Holocene, the geological epoch encompassing approximately the past 11,700 years. Older records generally preserve less detail, so their apparent simplicity may reflect the limitations of the surviving evidence. A blurred photograph does not establish that the landscape it depicts contained fewer features.

The relevance to creationism is straightforward, although testing the biblical flood story was no part of the researchers’ purpose, but like almost all science, they did that incidentally, simply by revealing the facts. A flood can erode older deposits, transport fossils and produce successive sediment layers. None of those observations, however, demonstrates that it can reproduce the chronology and environmental history reconstructed from natural archives. A credible alternative would have to account for the ages, the sequence of environmental changes and the differences between locations together. Simply labelling everything “Flood sediment” supplies no such explanation.

Refuting Creationism - Bible Mythology Dead And Buried Beneath The Gondwana Supercontinent

Artists impression of the supercontinent Gondwana.

Source: Mark Garlick/Science Photo Library/Getty (Royalty-free)

Reconstruction of Greater Gondwana at ca. 500 Ma or at 550 to 500 Ma compared with conventional paleogeographic interpretations (inset).

From: Tao Wang et al.(2026).

Gondwana really was a supercontinent. And it helped kick-start life on Earth

More than half a billion years before the supposed ‘Creation Week’ of biblical literalism, moving continents were reshaping the planet and helping to establish the environmental conditions in which early animals diversified. That is the inconvenient historical setting of new research into Gondwana: a vast continental assembly whose formation, geological activity and subsequent fragmentation belong to a timescale that bears no resemblance to the few thousand years allowed by young-Earth creationism.

A paper in Science Advances , by Tao Wang of the State Key Laboratory of Deep Earth and Mineral Exploration, Institute of Geology, Beijing, China, and colleagues, suggests that Gondwana was substantially larger than conventional reconstructions show. As co-author Bill Collins explains in his accompanying account in The Conversation, isotopic evidence in granites identifies ancient continental material now concealed beneath younger geological formations across much of Asia. Including these overlooked fragments increases Gondwana’s estimated share of Earth’s continental landmass to roughly 80 per cent, making it a supercontinent even under a restrictive definition of that term. This reconstruction concerns the world of approximately 550–500 million years ago.

Its significance extends beyond redrawing an ancient map. The researchers propose that the reorganisation of plate boundaries associated with Gondwana’s assembly established an enormous belt of volcanic activity. Sustained emissions of greenhouse gases could then have helped alter the climate, contributing to conditions favourable to the diversification of Cambrian life. This is a proposed connection between geological and biological change, rather than a demonstration that volcanism alone caused the Cambrian radiation.

One distinction matters here: despite the article’s headline, this concerns the diversification of life, not its original appearance. Life already had a long evolutionary history before the Cambrian, and animals existed before that period began. Nor was the Cambrian ‘explosion’ an instantaneous event resembling a magical creation. The term describes a geologically rapid evolutionary diversification, unfolding over millions of years.

For creationism, therefore, the problem is more substantial than another inconvenient date. Here is a testable account connecting the history of continents with the environmental context of biological evolution. Continents assemble, plate boundaries change, volcanoes influence the atmosphere, and organisms evolve in the resulting conditions. None of this requires foresight or a predetermined destination. It requires physical processes, evolving populations and the immense passage of time.

Creationism Refuted - Fossils On Mountains Are Evidence Of Dynamic Geology, Not A Flood

TOL-1 Section, Mut Basin, Türkiye.

Credit: Selma Sarı.

The Durupinar site in Eastern Anatolia (Türkiye) often misrepresented by creationists as the fossil remains of Noah's Ark.

By Mfikretyilmaz - Own work, CC BY 3.0, Link

International research team finds the world's highest late Middle Pleistocene marine deposits

Finding marine fossils more than a kilometre above sea level might seem, at first sight, to be just the sort of discovery biblical literalists could seize upon as evidence of Noah’s flood. After all, if sediments containing the remains of marine organisms occur high in the mountains, surely the sea must once have covered those mountains—or so the familiar creationist argument runs.


The argument depends upon ignoring one of the most elementary facts of geology: continents are not stationary platforms. Their crust is folded, faulted, stretched, compressed, raised and lowered by tectonic processes operating over millions of years. Marine sediments found at high altitude do not necessarily show that the sea rose to that altitude; they may show that a former seabed was subsequently raised far above the sea.


A striking new example has now been documented by Selma Sarı and an international team of geologists in the Mut Basin on the southern margin of the Central Anatolian Plateau in Türkiye. Their study, published in the journal Geology, describes the world’s highest known late Middle Pleistocene marine deposits: sediments now preserved 1,177 metres above mean sea level but deposited beneath the sea during Marine Isotope Stage 7, approximately 230,000 years ago.


The researchers did not simply find shells on a hillside and invent a convenient explanation for them. They combined several independent lines of evidence, including calcareous nannofossils, foraminifera, ostracod communities, palaeomagnetism, stable-isotope measurements and reconstruction of the original water depth. The ostracods indicate that the sediments accumulated about 50 metres below the contemporary sea surface, while the fossil succession and magnetic record constrain when that deposition occurred.


Taking the original water depth and contemporary sea level into account, the researchers calculated that the deposits have been raised at an average rate of approximately 5.2 metres per thousand years. That is an exceptionally rapid geological uplift rate, probably produced by interacting processes deep beneath Anatolia, including break-off of part of the subducting Cyprus slab and mantle flow associated with the Arabian slab. The marine sediments have therefore become a precisely dated marker carried upwards by the movement of Earth’s crust.

This is exactly what creationist flood mythology cannot provide: a coherent explanation that agrees simultaneously with the fossils, sedimentary environment, magnetic record, isotope evidence, reconstructed water depth, regional tectonics and measured chronology. A single recent inundation would not explain why marine sediments occur at different elevations, belong to different geological periods and have subsequently undergone folding, faulting, uplift and erosion.

Creationism Refuted - How The Grand Canyon Was Formed - No Magic Flood Involved

Grand Canyon’s oldest and deepest rocks were unearthed by massive cliff across ancient USA.

Lost mega-escarpment across ancient USA may explain Grand Canyon missing billion years

Creationists sometimes point to the Great Unconformity in the Grand Canyon as evidence of Noah’s mythical global flood. But an unconformity is not a layer deposited by a flood. It is a surface representing an interval during which older rocks were exposed, eroded and sometimes deformed before younger sediments were laid on top of them. What is “missing” is not evidence; it is rock that either was never deposited or was subsequently removed, with the surviving rocks preserving evidence of what happened in the intervening time.

Creationists attempts to fit the Grand Canyon into their Biblical flood myth range from the sublime to the ridiculous, none of them in the least plausible and designed to appeal to the parochial ignorance that typifies American creationism. Their conclusion is always sacred and immune to contradiction. Facts are accepted or rejected based on whether they support the conclusion or not. Science, by contrast, starts with a neutral view, collects evidence, then takes a view that accounts for that evidence, as always in science, the facts are neutral and the conclusion provisional, contingent on the discovery of more evidence.

At parts of the Grand Canyon, Cambrian sedimentary rocks rest upon much older Precambrian rocks, leaving more than a billion years of geological history unrepresented by sedimentary strata at that particular location. Far from supporting the idea that the canyon’s rocks were deposited during a single year-long catastrophe, the contact records a succession of events involving sedimentation, burial, tectonic disturbance, uplift, prolonged exposure, erosion and renewed deposition.

A new study published open access in the journal Geology now proposes a mechanism that may explain much of the extraordinary erosion responsible for this gap in the south-western United States. Thomas M. Gernon of the University of Southampton and colleagues have reconstructed a continent-scale escarpment that may have developed along the western margin of Laurentia—the ancient continental core of North America—as the supercontinent Rodinia began breaking apart approximately 800–750 million years ago.

Refuting Creationism - Transformation of the Northwest African Landscape - Over 24 Million Years

24 million Years ago

5.3 million years ago

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Northwest Africa, 24 Million years ago.

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African grasslands became widespread over five million years earlier than previously known | EurekAlert!

To anyone familiar with Africa today, its extensive grasslands and savannahs can seem almost timeless: landscapes of grasses, scattered trees, grazing herbivores, predators and recurrent fires. But, like every modern ecosystem, the African savannah has a history. It was not created fully formed, stocked with its present collection of plants and animals, during a mythical creation week a few thousand years ago. It developed through a succession of environmental and evolutionary changes extending over tens of millions of years.

Some of that history is preserved not on the African continent itself, where erosion and geological disturbance have left gaps in the terrestrial record, but beneath the neighbouring Atlantic Ocean. Plant waxes blown from the land settled on the sea surface and were incorporated into sediments accumulating slowly on the ocean floor. Layer upon layer, these sediments preserved a chemical record of the vegetation growing in north-west Africa at different times.

Now, Anna K. Schartman, Pratigya J. Polissar and Caroline A. E. Strömberg have used these molecular fossils and their carbon-isotope composition to reconstruct some 24 million years of ecological change. Their findings are reported in an open-access paper, “The origin and development of the Miocene northwest African savanna”, published in the Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences.

The researchers found that the region’s closed forests and woodlands began giving way to a much more open ecosystem about 15–14 million years ago—approximately five million years earlier than earlier regional reconstructions had suggested. This first open landscape was not equivalent to the modern African savannah. It was rich in C₃ grasses and had no close modern counterpart. The familiar C₄-grass savannah developed later and in stages, with its most rapid expansion occurring between about 7.4 and 6.4 million years ago.

This does not conflict with research publicised by UC Santa Cruz in 2023, which found locally abundant C₄ grasses in parts of eastern Africa between about 21 and 16 million years ago. That earlier research examined terrestrial fossil sites in Kenya and Uganda; the new study reconstructs regional vegetation in north-west Africa from wind-blown plant waxes preserved in marine sediments. Together, the studies show that Africa did not undergo a single, continent-wide transformation. Different mixtures of forest, woodland and grassland appeared in different regions at different times.

Refuting Creationism - Dinosaurs Digging Pits In Bolivia - 67 Million Years Before 'Creation Week'

Oblique view of the lower part of the surface from the east, showing the general extent of the exposed palaeosurface. People for scale. Red arrow indicates the pit.

From: Meyer CA, Heymann JH, Ibarra EC, Flores EL, Sciscio L (2026)

Artistic reconstruction of the Mullurina Mayu bowl-shaped depression during the Late Cretaceous, depicting the probable tracemakers responsible for the Calorckosauripus trackways and possibly the bowl-shaped depression.

Illustration by Joshua Knüppe.

A Cretaceous Cold Case: The mysterious affair at Mullurina Mayu (Bolivia) | Blog

Some 67 million years before creationists believe their god created Earth during its mythical six-day “Creation Week”, a group of enormous, long-necked dinosaurs walked across the soft mud beside a river or lake in what is now Bolivia. At least one large animal may also have stopped to scrape repeatedly at the ground, leaving a great bowl-shaped depression surrounded by grooves and possible claw marks. Whether it was preparing a nest, digging for water or mineral salts, or doing something else entirely is uncertain, but the marks it left behind provide a rare glimpse of dinosaur behaviour shortly before the end of the Cretaceous Period.

The evidence comes from the Mullurina Mayu locality in the Maragua region, about 23 kilometres west of Sucre, Bolivia. There, an exposed surface of Maastrichtian-age claystone in the Lower Member of the El Molino Formation preserves several trackways attributed to titanosaurian sauropods. The tracks have been assigned to the trace-fossil species Calorckosauripus lazari, believed to have been made by comparatively non-derived titanosaurs.

Now, in a paper published in the journal Fossil Record, Christian A. Meyer, Jose Hugo Heymann, Edwin Chuca Ibarra, Eddy Laura Flores and Lara Sciscio have described an unusual structure preserved among those trackways. It is an irregular, bowl-shaped hollow measuring approximately 4.2 by 3.2 metres and reaching about 60 centimetres in depth. Around its walls are bundles of parallel grooves, roughly one centimetre wide and up to about 30 centimetres long, together with broader marks on the floor that may have been made by claws.

Refuting Creationism - No 'Waters Of The Deep'!

Scanning Transmission X-ray Microscopy (STXM) with nanometer resolution of the selected inclusion.

Camarda, C., Gervasoni, F., Jalowitzki, T. et al (2026).

Schematic cross-section showing a cold subducted slab descending through the mantle transition zone into the deep mantle. The cold, very cold slab and hot geotherms are represented by dashed lines.

Camarda, C., Gervasoni, F., Jalowitzki, T. et al (2026).

Analysis of a super-deep diamond reveals how water travels to the Earth’s interior

Creationists have long been fond of two superficially impressive but scientifically worthless arguments. The first is that tiny amounts of carbon-14 detected when diamonds are placed in an accelerator mass spectrometer somehow show that diamonds—and therefore Earth—are only a few thousand years old. The second is that the discovery of “water” deep inside Earth confirms the biblical “fountains of the great deep” and, when convenient, explains where all the water from Noah’s supposed global flood subsequently disappeared.

A paper recently published in Scientific Reports brings these two favourite misconceptions together in a combination that may prove irresistible to professional misrepresenters of science. It therefore seems prudent to explain what the researchers actually found before the inevitable claims begin circulating.

Carolina Camarda and colleagues examined an irregular diamond, just 3 millimetres long, recovered from the Juína region of Brazil. Super-deep diamonds form at depths greater than about 300 kilometres, rather than at the approximately 150-kilometre depths typical of most diamonds, and can preserve microscopic inclusions of minerals that record conditions far below the surface.

Using synchrotron X-ray tomography, diffraction and spectroscopy, the team mapped more than 100 inclusions inside the diamond. One completely sealed inclusion, only about 35 micrometres across, contained a complex mixture of goethite—an iron oxyhydroxide with the formula FeOOH—together with hematite and magnetite. Another inclusion contained ferropericlase, a mineral characteristic of the deep mantle, supporting the conclusion that the diamond originated far below the crust.

The researchers propose that the goethite originally formed within hydrated oceanic crust or lithosphere. As that crust was carried downwards at a subduction zone, the goethite changed into a high-pressure form capable of surviving within a relatively cold descending slab. At still greater pressures and temperatures it began to decompose into iron oxides, releasing H₂O and oxygen into the surrounding mantle. The diamond then encapsulated part of this mineral assemblage, preserving evidence of the process.

In other words, the discovery concerns the slow transport of surface-derived water downwards through plate subduction. It is not evidence of a primordial subterranean ocean bursting upwards to flood Earth. Nor does it show where the water from an imaginary global flood went afterwards. The “water” carried by goethite is chemically incorporated into its crystal structure, principally as hydroxyl groups; it is not a liquid ocean occupying enormous caverns beneath the crust. It can be liberated as molecular water only when the mineral undergoes chemical reactions under extreme mantle conditions.

The study examined one microscopic inclusion and made no estimate of a hidden ocean, no calculation of the volume of floodwater that could be accommodated, and no suggestion that surface water could disappear hundreds of kilometres into the mantle within a few months. What it describes is part of Earth’s deep-water cycle, driven by plate tectonics and operating over geological time. Indeed, the direction of transport in the authors’ model is exactly the reverse of the “fountains of the great deep”: hydrated rocks are carried from the ocean floor into the mantle, where some of their bound water is eventually released.

Nor did the researchers carbon-date the diamond. The paper contains no radiocarbon measurement at all. Carbon-14 has a half-life of about 5,730 years, making radiocarbon dating useful for formerly living material up to roughly 50,000–55,000 years old under ordinary conditions. It cannot determine whether a diamond formed hundreds of millions or billions of years ago, and mantle carbon does not necessarily begin with the atmospheric carbon-14 ratio required for conventional radiocarbon dating.

Creationism Refuted - Another Gap Closed with a 23-Million-Year-Old Fossil - Just as The Theory Of Evolution Predicted

AI-generated image (ChatGPT 5.6 Sol)

Reconstruction of Miyumba chrisdickmani in its natural setting.

AI-generated image (ChatGPT 5.6 Sol)

Australia’s most diverse marsupial predators have been hiding their origins for millions of years

To a palaeontologist, a gap in the fossil record is an unanswered question and an invitation to keep looking. To a creationist, it is more often treated as a convenient space in which to insert a supernatural explanation. The difficulty for creationism is that scientists have an inconvenient habit of finding the missing evidence, whereupon the gap becomes smaller, the evolutionary history becomes clearer, and creationists must quietly move their supernatural explanation somewhere else.

A particularly neat example is provided by a paper just published in Australian Zoologist by Timothy J. Churchill, Michael Archer, Suzanne J. Hand and Roy M. Farman. As Churchill explains in an article in The Conversation, a handful of tiny fossil jaws from north-western Queensland has supplied a previously missing opening chapter in the evolutionary history of Australia’s most diverse family of marsupial predators.

The family Dasyuridae contains almost 80 living species, including Tasmanian devils, quolls, dunnarts, planigales and antechinuses. They range from insect-eaters weighing only a few grams to the much larger Tasmanian devil, and occupy environments extending from the tropical rainforests of New Guinea to Australian deserts, grasslands and alpine woodland. Yet, despite this modern diversity, their early fossil history had remained frustratingly obscure.

Molecular studies indicated that dasyurids had diverged from their closest relatives millions of years before the earliest unambiguous fossils then known. Almost all accepted dasyurid fossils were younger than about five million years, leaving what palaeontologists call a “ghost lineage”: a branch whose existence was indicated by evolutionary relationships, but whose earlier fossil representatives had not yet been found. The animal once thought to fill that gap, Barinya wangala, was subsequently shown to belong to an entirely different family of peculiar, probably snail-eating marsupials called malleodectids.

Creationists sometimes present such gaps as evidence against evolution, apparently assuming that unless every organism that ever lived has obligingly become fossilised, been exposed at the surface and been discovered, the evolutionary history can be dismissed. But incompleteness is not inconsistency. Fossilisation is rare, suitable rocks are unevenly distributed, and tiny, fragile animals are especially unlikely to leave recognisable remains. Evolution nevertheless predicted that earlier dasyurids had existed. The question was whether any of them would eventually be found.

The new species, named Miyumba chrisdickmani, is known from six partial lower jaws recovered from Early Miocene deposits in the Riversleigh World Heritage Area on Waanyi Country. It lived about 23 million years ago and probably weighed only about 30 grams, making it comparable in size to a modern antechinus or large dunnart. It is now the oldest confirmed member of Dasyuridae, extending the family’s recognised fossil history by more than five million years.

Its significance, however, lies in much more than its age. The teeth of Miyumba possess a particular arrangement in which the third lower premolar is smaller than the first and second. This appears to be a shared derived characteristic, or synapomorphy, identifying dasyurids as a natural evolutionary group. At the same time, Miyumba retains several ancestral dental features expected in an animal close to the base of that group’s family tree.

That combination is precisely what evolutionary theory predicts: an early member of a lineage should possess the defining innovations inherited by its descendants while retaining features inherited from more distant ancestors. It should not look exactly like a modern Tasmanian devil, quoll or dunnart because those specialised forms had not yet evolved. Nor should it be unrelated to them. It should display a mosaic of ancestral and newly evolved characteristics — and that is exactly what Miyumba does.

Refuting Creationism - How Storms Created A Dinosaur Fossil Site - 80 Million Years Before 'Creation Week'

Graphical abstract

Fanti, Federico; Consorti, Lorenzo; Muscioni, Marco; et al (2026) (CC BY 4.0)

Tethyshadros insularis and crocodilians struggle against a violent monsoon storm.

AI-generated image (ChatGPT 5.6 Sol)

Storms that built a graveyard: ancient monsoons created a spectacular dinosaur fossil site

Young-Earth creationists are fond of pointing out that a single flood or storm can deposit a layer of sediment very quickly, as though this somehow proves that the entire geological record could have been produced during the mythical year-long flood described in Genesis. But the speed with which an individual layer forms tells us nothing about the intervals between successive layers. When those layers contain regular, measurable cycles produced by processes operating daily, fortnightly and seasonally, they become a record of elapsed time—and that time cannot simply be waved away.

An article in The Conversation by palaeontologist Alfio Alessandro Chiarenza of University College London describes just such a record. It concerns the Villaggio del Pescatore fossil site near Trieste, north-eastern Italy, where dinosaurs, crocodilians, fish, shrimps, plants and other organisms were preserved with exceptional detail about 80 million years ago.

Chiarenza and his colleagues, led jointly with Federico Fanti of the University of Bologna, have published their findings in the journal Global and Planetary Change. Their evidence shows that the site was not, as previously proposed, a quiet lake or sinkhole. It was a tropical tidal flat on the edge of an ancient sea, repeatedly affected by powerful monsoon floods and tropical cyclones.

The fossil-bearing limestone consists of metre-thick packages containing thousands of discrete, paper-thin light and dark layers. These had previously been interpreted as annual deposits, or varves. However, high-resolution synchrotron X-ray scanning, microscopic and geochemical analyses, and statistical analysis of the repeating patterns revealed something still more remarkable: the layers are tidal microcouplets, laid down under a semidiurnal tidal regime—two tidal cycles each day.

Moreover, variations in the thickness of the layers follow the familiar fortnightly alternation between spring and neap tides. The rocks therefore contain not merely a succession of vaguely similar bands, but an ordered astronomical rhythm produced by the interaction of Earth’s rotation with the orbit of the Moon. By counting and analysing those layers, the researchers calculated that the fossil-bearing succession accumulated over approximately 40 years. In other words, the rock preserves an almost day-by-day record extending across four decades.

That presents creationists with a problem that cannot be dismissed by claiming that “floods can deposit sediment rapidly”. Of course they can; that is precisely what some of the layers record. But a single flood cannot manufacture 40 years’ worth of successive twice-daily tidal deposits, arranged in the correct fortnightly spring–neap pattern. Still less can the supposed year-long biblical flood accommodate a geological sequence that records some 40 years of tides within one small part of a vastly larger, 80-million-year-old succession.

Refuting Creationism - Death More Than 66 Million Years Before Mythical 'Sin'

A Tyrannosaur stalking an edmontosaurus

AI-Generated Image (ChatGPT 5.5 Thinking)

"The Bite"

Paleoartist Jenn Hall.

Rare fossil at Montana State’s Museum of the Rockies records Tyrannosaurus attack

A paper published on 17 February 2026 in PeerJ by Taia C.A. Wyenberg-Henzler of la of Montana State University, USA, reports on a remarkable fossil from the Hell Creek Formation of eastern Montana: a nearly complete, articulated skull of an adult Edmontosaurus annectens with the broken tip of a tyrannosaur tooth still embedded in its left nasal bone.

The fossil dates from the closing stages of the Late Cretaceous, roughly 66 million years ago, shortly before Edmontosaurus, Tyrannosaurus and all other non-avian dinosaurs disappeared during the Cretaceous–Palaeogene mass extinction. The bone surrounding the embedded tooth shows no evidence of healing or remodelling, indicating that the bite occurred at, very near or shortly after the death of the Edmontosaurus.

In other words, this is physical evidence of a violent interaction between predator and prey tens of millions of years before humans existed—precisely the sort of evidence that creationists are conditioned to reject because it cannot be accommodated within their mythology. According to young-Earth creationism, there was supposedly no death, predation or suffering before human ‘sin’ allowed evil to enter the world and ruin their omnipotent creator’s previously perfect creation—apparently without that omnipotent creator either foreseeing or preventing it. And all this supposedly happened only 6,000–10,000 years ago, shortly after ‘Creation Week’.

The doctrine that no animal died before ‘the Fall’ is not stated explicitly anywhere in the Bible. It is a theological inference imposed upon the text because young-Earth creationism requires it. It belongs to the category of reasoning that says: ‘This must be true for the rest of my beliefs to be true; my beliefs cannot be wrong; therefore, this must also be true.’

Having granted themselves this assumption of infallibility, creationists must then protect it from every fact that contradicts it. The belief cannot be mistaken, so the evidence must somehow be misunderstood, fraudulent, planted by Satan, created with the appearance of age or otherwise unworthy of consideration. Anything, in fact, is preferable to the intellectually honest admission that the belief itself has been falsified.

In almost every other field of human endeavour, such a supremely arrogant claim to personal infallibility would be laughed at and its proponent told to grow up. Yet, when packaged as religious faith, it is not merely tolerated but frequently treated with respect. Its advocates demand—and often receive—special privileges and social status: ‘You must listen to me, allow me to make laws governing your life and let me shape society according to my beliefs because I have an invisible friend and wear special robes.’

And so creationism staggers on, obliged to deny a veritable deluge of scientific evidence rather than concede that its mythology bears no resemblance to the history of life on Earth.