Refuting Creationism - How Horseshoe Crabs Have Evolved And Diversified

Indo-pacific horseshoe crab, Tachypleus gigas

By Shubham Chatterjee - Own work,
CC BY-SA 3.0, Link

Indo-Pacific Horseshoe Crab, Tachypleus tridentatus

Photo: Dr Tang Qian

Preserving Asian horseshoe crab populations through targeted conservation strategies

In creationist mythology, horseshoe crabs have remained unchanged for 400 million years, so they prove there is no such thing as evolution and Earth is only 6-0,000 years old. Apart from the typical lack of joined-up thinking in that non sequitur, there are a couple of fallacy at work here.

Firstly, evolution does not necessarily involve major changes in the phenotype because it happens at the genetic level, so the genome is where we need to look to find evidence of it (or lack of it); secondly there is no requirement for a species that is already adapted to its environment to change unless its environment changes in a way that requires adaptation. This might include increased predation, depletion of food resource, major changes in temperature or oxygenation, increased competition from another species, etc.

With their child-like understanding of evolution, creationists assume a species must change into something else for evolution to happen.

In fact, as a team a research team led by Associate Professor Frank Rheindt from the Department of Biological Sciences at the National University of Singapore (NUS) Faculty of Science have now shown, there are four different species of horseshoe crab which have all diversified from a common ancestor.

Tell me about the evolution and distribution of the horseshoe crabs, please. Horseshoe crabs (order Xiphosura, class Merostomata) are marine arthropods that have existed for over 450 million years, making them one of the oldest living groups of animals. They are often called "living fossils" because their body plan has remained largely unchanged since the Ordovician period.

Evolutionary History

Horseshoe crabs belong to the subphylum Chelicerata, making them more closely related to arachnids (such as spiders and scorpions) than to true crabs or other crustaceans. Their evolutionary history includes several now-extinct relatives, such as Eurypterids (sea scorpions), which were once dominant marine predators.

• Ordovician Period (~450 mya): Early xiphosurans appear in shallow marine environments.
• Paleozoic Era (~300 mya): More advanced forms develop but remain morphologically similar to modern species.
• Mesozoic Era (~150 mya): Horseshoe crabs survive mass extinctions, adapting to various shallow marine environments.
• Cenozoic Era (Present day): Four extant species remain, showing remarkable evolutionary stability.

Modern Distribution

Today, only four species of horseshoe crabs survive, all found in coastal and estuarine environments:

1. Limulus polyphemus (Atlantic Horseshoe Crab) – Found along the eastern coast of North America, from the Gulf of Mexico to the northeastern United States.
2. Tachypleus tridentatus (Tri-spine Horseshoe Crab) – Found in coastal waters of China, Japan, and Southeast Asia.
3. Tachypleus gigas (Indo-Pacific Horseshoe Crab) – Inhabits the waters of the Bay of Bengal and Southeast Asia.
4. Carcinoscorpius rotundicauda (Mangrove Horseshoe Crab) – Found in shallow waters and estuaries from India to Indonesia.

Ecological Role & Conservation

Horseshoe crabs play a crucial ecological role. Their eggs provide an important food source for migratory shorebirds, and they contribute to benthic (seafloor) ecosystems. They are also vital to biomedical research because their blue blood contains limulus amebocyte lysate (LAL), used to detect bacterial contamination in medical applications.

However, populations are declining due to:

• Overharvesting (for bait and biomedical use)
• Habitat loss (coastal development)
• Climate change (affecting spawning conditions)

Conservation efforts focus on protecting nesting beaches, regulating harvesting, and exploring synthetic alternatives to LAL for medical testing.

Fossil Record of Horseshoe Crabs (Order Xiphosura)

Horseshoe crabs have an extensive fossil record dating back to the Ordovician period (~450 million years ago). Their morphology has remained remarkably stable, making them classic examples of "living fossils." The fossil record reveals several extinct relatives and a gradual adaptation to different marine environments over geological time.

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Key Fossil Discoveries and Evolutionary Timeline

1. Ordovician Period (485–443 mya) – Oldest Known Horseshoe Crab Ancestors
   • The earliest xiphosurans appeared in shallow marine environments.
   • Fossils of Tetraspidella from the Upper Ordovician suggest primitive horseshoe crab-like arthropods already existed.
2. Silurian Period (443–419 mya) – Emergence of True Xiphosurans
   • More recognizable horseshoe crab relatives evolved.
   • Kasibelinurus (Late Silurian) is considered one of the earliest known xiphosurans.
3. Devonian Period (419–359 mya) – Diversification and Expansion
   • This period saw the emergence of several marine genera with more developed carapaces and feeding structures.
   • Bellinurus and Euproops are well-known genera from the Devonian.
4. Carboniferous Period (359–299 mya) – Peak Diversity
   • This was the golden age of xiphosurans, with numerous species thriving in marine, brackish, and even freshwater environments.
   • Genera like Euproops, Bellinurus, and Paleolimulus flourished, some resembling modern horseshoe crabs.
   • Some species, such as Euproops danae, had spines and unique adaptations to different ecological niches.
5. Permian Period (299–252 mya) – Decline and Extinctions
   • The Permian saw a decline in diversity, possibly due to changing environments and competition with other arthropods.
   • Many species perished during the Permian-Triassic mass extinction (~252 mya), the most severe extinction event in Earth's history.
6. Mesozoic Era (252–66 mya) – Survival and Adaptation
   • Xiphosurans survived the mass extinction but were less diverse than in the Carboniferous.
   • Fossil genera like Mesolimulus (Jurassic) and Limulitella (Cretaceous) were similar to modern horseshoe crabs.
   • Some species adapted to shallow coastal waters, much like their modern counterparts.
7. Cenozoic Era (66 mya–Present) – Modern Horseshoe Crabs
   • Fossil records show that Limulus polyphemus, the modern Atlantic horseshoe crab, has remained almost unchanged for at least 20 million years.
   • Their ability to survive drastic environmental changes has made them one of the longest-surviving arthropod groups.

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Key Fossil Finds

1. Kasibelinurus (Silurian) – One of the earliest known true xiphosurans.
2. Euproops (Carboniferous) – Small, with a reinforced carapace and spines for protection.
3. Mesolimulus (Jurassic) – Nearly identical to modern Limulus, showing little evolutionary change.
4. Paleolimulus (Permian) – A transitional form between early and modern horseshoe crabs.

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Why Have Horseshoe Crabs Changed so Little?

• Stable ecological niche: They have occupied similar coastal and estuarine environments for hundreds of millions of years.
• Efficient body plan: Their tough exoskeleton, simple yet effective feeding structures, and ability to tolerate low-oxygen conditions have helped them persist.
• Survivors of mass extinctions: They have outlived dinosaurs and many other ancient marine species due to their resilience and adaptability.

The results of their study are published open access in the journal Conservation Letters and is the subject of a news item from NUS>

Preserving Asian horseshoe crab populations through targeted conservation strategies

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NUS biologists conduct the first comprehensive population study of all three Asian horseshoe crab species, mapping their population distribution, evolutionary histories and vulnerabilities to climate change to propose customised conservation strategies

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The photo shows the moult of a young tri-spine horseshoe crab, Tachypleus tridentatus – an endangered species – found on the beach at Beihai, China. The genomic data gathered by NUS researchers on this species provides a launchpad for conservation strategies.

Photo: Dr Tang Qian.

Horseshoe crabs are often referred to as the “living fossils” of our planet — the four known species, including three in Asia and one in North America, remain nearly identical to their ancient relatives from hundreds of millions of years ago. These arthropods are a fundamental building block of coastal marine ecosystems. Their eggs, for example, serve as a major food source for shorebirds, some of which have evolved to time their migrations to coincide with peak horseshoe crab spawning activity. In addition to their ecological role, horseshoe crabs are also used in biomedicine to test for harmful toxins in vaccines.

Among the four species, only the Atlantic horseshoe crab (Limulus polyphemus), found along the Atlantic coast of the United States and the Gulf of Mexico, has been extensively studied. In contrast, scientific information about the three Asian species is so scant and scattered that the IUCN Red List, which tracks the extinction risk of species around the world, listed two of them (the mangrove horseshoe crab and the coastal horseshoe crab) as “data deficient”. This designation indicates insufficient data to assess their extinction risk. On the other hand, the tri-spine horseshoe crab is considered endangered.

Understanding our planet’s living fossils

to help fill in these knowledge gaps, a research team led by Associate Professor Frank Rheindt from the Department of Biological Sciences at the NUS Faculty of Science conducted the first comprehensive population genomic study of all three Asian horseshoe crab species: the mangrove horseshoe crab (Carcinoscorpius rotundicauda), coastal horseshoe crab (Tachypleus gigas), and tri-spine horseshoe crab (Tachypleus tridentatus).

The study underscores the importance of Southeast Asia’s Sunda Shelf, a shallow-marine region, as a critical coastal marine habitat. Importantly, this region has sustained the survival of these ancient arthropods for millennia and could continue to act as a refuge for Asian horseshoe crabs amid accelerating anthropogenic climate change.

The researchers have also established the first-ever genomic baseline dataset for these species, which lay the groundwork for targeted conservation planning. Their findings, which propose different conservation strategies for each species, were published in Conservation Letters on 16 December 2024.

Back to the basics: Filling data gaps to advance conservation efforts

To protect and conserve these species, it is crucial that we first cover the basics — understanding their population structure, evolutionary histories and climate-change-driven vulnerabilities. This foundational knowledge will enable us to develop targeted conservation strategies and prioritise habitats critical for their survival.

Associate Professor Frank E. Rheindt, co-corresponding author
Department of Biological Sciences
National University of Singapore, Singapore.

Tracking and monitoring Asian horseshoe crabs is in and of itself a challenging feat. They spend most of their lives on the seabed, making them difficult to observe, and they take 14 years to mature — too long to assess population changes effectively through traditional surveys. To overcome these challenges, the researchers turned to population genomic approaches, where they analysed DNA from 251 horseshoe crabs collected across 52 sites in 11 countries.

Using this data, NUS researchers created the first genomic baseline dataset for Asian horseshoe crabs. This dataset enabled the team to map population structures and delineate genetic boundaries among the three species.

Such distinctions are important, as they highlight populations that harbour unique genetic traits essential for adapting to specific local environments. Genomic data also helps us pinpoint coastal hotspots that should be prioritised for conservation.

Dr Tang Qian, first author.
Department of Biological Sciences
National University of Singapore, Singapore.

The study also revealed how horseshoe crabs have responded to environmental fluctuations over time. The Sunda Shelf emerged as a vital refuge for horseshoe crabs during periods of past climate change. By reconstructing the species’ evolutionary histories, the researchers found that the region has not only preserved genetic diversity but also served as a migratory corridor, which allowed populations to remain connected despite environmental changes.

Tailored conservation strategies needed

The study highlighted that future climate change poses varying levels of risk to the three species of Asian horseshoe crabs. While all are vulnerable, their ability to adapt differs. For instance, the mangrove horseshoe crab, with its limited dispersal capacity, faces higher threats of local extinction compared to the more mobile coastal and tri-spine horseshoe crabs.

Based on these findings, the researchers have proposed tailored conservation strategies to support each species in adapting to climate change:

Mangrove horseshoe crabs

• Protect and restore mangrove habitats, which are essential for the species’ survival and ability to migrate southward in response to rising temperatures.
• Prioritise the conservation of populations in the Gulf of Tonkin and South China as they face the highest evolutionary pressures from climate change.

Coastal horseshoe crabs

• Protect the Sunda Shelf region, which serves as a critical refugial habitat, particularly around the Bay of Bengal, the Malacca Strait and Southern Vietnam.
• Maintain connectivity between populations by safeguarding coastal corridors to mitigate the species’ vulnerability to habitat fragmentation.

Tri-spine horseshoe crabs

• Implement sustainable fishery regulations and restore coastal habitats, especially in areas with a history of intensive development, such as Japan, Taiwan and China.
• Focus conservation efforts on reducing human-driven threats like harvesting and habitat loss as these currently pose greater risks than climate change.

Next steps

Our study provides an important impetus and the necessary baseline data for the preservation of key habitats for horseshoe crabs’ future survival. As an important caveat, however, our work is only based on environmental factors and does not take into account future human activities that may directly alter habitats, such as coastal development. The survival of horseshoe crabs will therefore critically depend on interventions based on local contexts.

Dr Tang Qian.

Looking ahead, the researchers plan to further explore the evolutionary potential of Asian horseshoe crabs. This includes studying how specific functional genes contribute to their ability to adapt to local environments and changing climates.

We have established the Horseshoe Crab Global Biorepository, with its physical collection located at the Lee Kong Chian Natural History Museum at NUS, to support ongoing and future research. Through this resource, we hope to foster collaborations and secure funding to advance genomic research on horseshoe crabs. We are currently working with the Chinese University of Hong Kong on genomic research specifically focused on the tri-spine horseshoe crab.

Associate Professor Frank E. Rheindt.

ABSTRACT
Horseshoe crabs are unique living fossils that have remained almost unaltered through 400 million years of global change. They face rapid worldwide declines under increasing anthropogenic pressure. Using comprehensive geographic and genomic sampling combined with approaches that integrate DNA with environmental and climatic datasets, we assessed the population genetic structure, demographic histories, and vulnerability to future climate change in three out of four extant horseshoe crab species, all centered in Asia. Our study highlights that the Sunda Shelf, a complex and dynamic shallow-marine landscape, has been the sole repository of most genetic diversity among all three Asian species, and therefore crucial to the long-term survival of horseshoe crabs. Our study not only provides the first genomic baseline data for the evaluation of Asian horseshoe crabs’ conservation status but also identifies core habitats that potentially act as refugia and corridors for Asian horseshoe crab populations with impending anthropogenic global warming.

1 Introduction
Horseshoe crabs are one of the planet's foremost “living fossils”. They are known for their high morphological conservatism and a consistently slow evolutionary rate over hundreds of millions of years (Bicknell and Pates 2020). Although they are a fundamental building block of coastal marine ecosystems where they occur (Botton 2009), only four geographically restricted species remain today (Sekiguchi and Shuster 2009.1): the Atlantic horseshoe crab (Limulus polyphemus) along the Atlantic coast of the United States and the Gulf of Mexico, and three Asian horseshoe crabs, the mangrove horseshoe crab (Carcinoscorpius rotundicauda), coastal horseshoe crab (Tachypleus gigas), and tri-spine horseshoe crab (Tachypleus tridentatus), in coastal East, Southeast, and South Asia (Figure 1). Although anecdotal reports suggest declines of horseshoe crabs worldwide (John et al. 2018; Wang et al. 2020.1), important baseline population data remain scant and are mostly only available in economically advanced regions. Hence, the Atlantic horseshoe crab is more intensively studied compared with its Asian cousins (Luo et al. 2020.2), two of which (C. rotundicauda and T. gigas) are currently classified as data deficient in the IUCN Red List, whereas T. tridentatus is considered endangered.

FIGURE 1

Distribution and genetic divergence of Asian horseshoe crabs. Top left: map of the sampling localities; colored coastal lines (see legend) highlight the natural range of the three Asian horseshoe crab species; dotted lines delimit seven geographical regions (A–G) identified in genetic analysis; sampling localities are color coded according to each of the seven geographical regions. Top right: Principal component analysis (PCA) plots of horseshoe crab individuals (based on SNP dataset with 10% missing data and linked loci filtered). Colors in PCA plots correspond to colors of sampling localities on the map. Bottom: consensus population assignments (thick lines above the bar plots) and individual population assignments using ADMIXTURE (bar plots based on SNP dataset with 10% missing data and linked loci filtered) and discriminant analysis of principal components (membership assignments across SNP datasets displayed as lines under the bar plots). The consensus populations’ pairwise F_st and D_xy values (calculated based on the SNP dataset with 10% missing data and linked loci filtered) are depicted on the right of the corresponding population assignments.

The biology of all four extant horseshoe crab species has been tightly adapted to ephemeral coastline habitat and shallow-marine conditions since the late Paleozoic (Blażejowski et al. 2017; Bicknell and Pates 2020). The three Asian species’ ranges broadly overlap across the Southeast Asian Sunda Shelf, which is known as one of world's biodiversity hotspots for terrestrial (Myers et al. 2000), freshwater (He et al. 2018.1), and coastal marine (Hoeksema 2007; Schumm et al. 2019) flora and fauna. Owing to accelerated diversification rates fueled by habitat dynamics across glacial cycles, the Sunda Shelf has become a cradle of terrestrial and freshwater endemism following its first submergence at ∼400 ka (Cros et al. 2020.3; Husson et al. 2020.4; Salles et al. 2021; Sholihah et al. 2021.1; Garg et al. 2022). The region also exhibits high marine biodiversity but relatively low endemism (Costello et al. 2017.1), suggesting niche filling by dispersion (Ludt and Rocha 2015; Pinheiro et al. 2017.2), which may have turned the Sunda Shelf into a sanctuary for coastal marine biodiversity during interglacial periods.

To understand population structure, evolutionary histories, and climate change-driven vulnerability, we comprehensively sampled the three Asian horseshoe crab species across their natural range. Our results provide baseline data for conservation action geared toward the continued existence of a species group that has survived global change almost unaltered since before the age of the dinosaurs.

Far from being the 'living fossils' that 'prove evolution never happened', these four species of horseshoe crab turn out to be evidence that it has happened, driven by environmental changes that produced the present distribution and diversity, and then stabilised, resulting in a prolonged period of evolutionary equilibrium because the species were optimally adapted to their environments in warm, shallow seas with sandy beaches on which to spawn.

To anyone with the courage to lean about evolution and what causes it, which of course excludes creationists, the horseshoe crabs are not a problem for the Theory of Evolution but a vindication of it.

Refuting Creationism - Jaw-Dropping Evolution in Reptiles

An anole - a species of ‘false chameleon’ - crushing a snail with its jaws.

Professor Anthony Herrel

December: Jaw evolution in lizards and snakes | News and features | University of Bristol

A research team from Bristol University, UK with Professor Anthony Herrel of the Mécanismes Adaptatifs et Evolution, Muséum national d'Histoire naturelle, Paris, France has recently published a paper showing the close link between the lower jaw shape of lizards and snakes, known collectively as the lepidosaurs, and their ecological niche as well as factors such as their phylogeny and scaling for body size (allometry).

They found that evolution was rapid in specialised groups such as burrowing and aquatic species.

Refuting Creationism - How A Beetle Evolved To Eat Toxic Plants

Red milkweed beetle, Tetraopes tetrophthalmus

CC BY 2.5, Link

Red milkweed beetle, Tetraopes tetrophthalmus

Red milkweed beetle genome sequence offers plant-insect co-evolutionary insights

We are continually being assurd by gullible cretionists that the Theory of Evolution (TOE) is 'a theory in crisis' becase a growing body of biologisdts have abandonned it in favour of the creationists superstition of intelligent [sic] design.

This has been a creationist fantasy for at least the last 50 years since when it is supposedly about to happen, any day now, real soon (a bit like The Second Coming of Christ - something which, despite regular announcements that it will happen next Wednesday at noon, never happens - but its gunna, you see!)

However, when we read the scientific publications of these biologists who are allegedly abandoning the TOE, we see no signs whatever of any abandonment; quite the opposite. We see the TOE as firmly embedded in biological science as the Laws of Thermodynamics and the Theory of Gravity are embedded in physics, Atomic Theory is embedded in chemistry and Germ Theory is embedded in epidemiology. It forms the bedrock of the science, without which very little makes any sense.

For example, when a bunch of entomologists wanted to understand how a species of herbivorous beetle can eat a toxic plant, they compared it genomically with a related species that doesn't eat the toxic plant to see how the ability to proccess the toxins evolved.

Of course, being scientists, they reject the idea that the beetle was magically created that way by an unproven supernatural entity because none of that can be falsified and the existence of such an entity can't be established, so there is no logical reason to include one in any answer. The fact that their mummies and daddies might have believed in it is irrelevent to their science, because belief doesn't create facts.

Refuting Creationism - Living Bacteria Sealed Inside 2 Billion-Year-Old Rock

Microbial cells stained green

© Y. Suzuki, S. J. Webb, M. Kouduka et al. 2024/ Microbial Ecology

2-billion-year-old rock home to living microbes | The University of Tokyo

The Bushveld Igneous Complex (BIC), South Africa.
This picture shows a very famous outcrop where nearly horizontal black and white layers are observed. The BIC made of layers of igneous rock in a basin shape, formed over a period of about 1 million years, after which it seems to have barely changed.

© Y. Suzuki.

In today's incidental rebuttal of creationist dogma, archaeologists have discovered living colonies of microbes sealed within cracks in 2-billion-year-old rocks from South Africa.

The microbes became sealed in the cracks by tightly-packed layers of clay so effectively creating sealed chambers from which nothing could escape and, more importantly, nothing could enter. They have survived over geological time by firstly having an extremely low metabolic rate, with a generation time measured in thousands, even millions of years, compared to surface-dwelling microbes with generation times in hours or minutes, and by utilising sulphates as their energy source.

What they demonstrate, apart from the fallacy of Earth only being made by magic 10,000 years ago, is that in a highly stable environment, a plentiful source of energy and the ability to recycle their dead with almost no loss of energy, there is no environmental pressure to evolve, so the microbes have remained virtually unchanged for hundreds of millions, even billions of years.

Refuting Creationism - Earliest Ancestors of the Tasmanian Tiger Were Alive 23-25 Million Years Before 'Creation Week'

Artist’s reconstruction of Badjcinus timfaulkneri scavenging on the carcass of Silvabestius michaelbirti, a wombat-like marsupial also from Hiatus Site.

Illustration by
Peter Schouten.

Tasmanian tiger, Thylacinus cynocephalus

AI generated image.

Earliest known ancestors of the extinct Tasmanian Tiger discovered – and some could even eat the bones and teeth of their prey - Taylor & Francis Newsroom

88 years ago today, the last Tasmanian tiger died in Beaumaris Zoo, Hobart, Tasmania.

It was the last in a line of carnivorous marsupial going back at least 23-25 million years ago, in the extended period of Earth's pre-'Creation Week' history when creationists believe there was nothing out of which a magic man made of nothing made everything in 6 days, just 10,000 years ago. According to creationist mythology, the Tasmanian tiger would have had no ancestors, being magically made from dirt just like every other living species.

This makes it hard for creation to explain the evidence of all those fossils known to be far older than 10,000 years and showing evidence of the evolution of extant species from ancient ancestors as species diversified from a single common ancestor which lived hundreds of millions of years ago, but then facts were never a problem for counter-factual creationism.

What information do you have on the extinct Tasmanian tiger? The Tasmanian tiger, also known as the thylacine (Thylacinus cynocephalus), was a carnivorous marsupial native to Tasmania, mainland Australia, and New Guinea. The thylacine looked somewhat like a medium-to-large dog with a slender body, a head resembling that of a wolf or dog, and distinctive dark stripes across its back and tail, giving it the nickname "Tasmanian tiger." However, it was more closely related to kangaroos and other marsupials.

Key Information about the Tasmanian Tiger:

1. Physical Description:
   • The thylacine was about the size of a large dog, with a length of up to 1.8 to 2 meters (including the tail) and a height at the shoulder of about 60 cm.
   • Its fur was short and coarse, typically tan or yellow-brown, with 13 to 20 dark stripes across its back and tail.
   • It had a long, stiff tail, similar to a kangaroo's, and could open its jaws incredibly wide, up to 120 degrees.
   
   
2. Habitat and Behavior:
   • The thylacine was a nocturnal and solitary animal, hunting at night and resting during the day in a den or hollow log.
   • It primarily fed on small to medium-sized animals, such as kangaroos, birds, and small mammals. Its diet may have also included carrion.
   
   
3. Extinction:
   • The thylacine was driven to extinction on the Australian mainland thousands of years ago, likely due to competition with humans and the dingo, a wild dog introduced to Australia.
   • In Tasmania, the species persisted until the 20th century. The last known wild thylacine was killed in 1930, and the last known individual in captivity died in 1936 at the Hobart Zoo in Tasmania.
   • Its extinction was primarily due to human activities, including hunting (encouraged by a bounty system), habitat destruction, and the introduction of diseases.
   
   
4. Conservation Efforts and "Rediscovery" Claims:
   • Despite being declared extinct, there have been numerous unconfirmed sightings and efforts to find surviving thylacines, but none have been scientifically verified.
   • Some scientific projects have explored the possibility of "de-extinction" using preserved DNA from museum specimens, but these efforts remain largely theoretical.
   
   
5. Cultural Significance:
   • The thylacine holds a unique place in Tasmanian culture and Australian folklore, often seen as a symbol of the tragedy of extinction and the need for wildlife conservation.
   • It appears on Tasmania's coat of arms and has been the subject of various books, documentaries, and studies.

Would you like to know more about any specific aspect of the Tasmanian tiger?

How the oldest ancestors of the Tasmanian tiger were discovered by palaeontologists from the University of New South Wales, Australia, is the subject of a Taylor & Francis news release:

Earliest known ancestors of the extinct Tasmanian Tiger discovered – and some could even eat the bones and teeth of their prey

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A marsupial which had an “extremely thick” jawbone, enabling it to consume even the bones and teeth of its prey is among a discovery of three, new ancient species of the modern Thylacines – otherwise known as the Tasmanian tiger, which went extinct 88 years ago.

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These new species each roamed Australia around 23-to-25 million years ago, during the late Oligocene, making them the “undoubted oldest members of this family ever discovered”.

Today – Australia’s National Threatened Species Day, which marks the death of the last Tasmanian Tiger in Hobart’s Beaumaris Zoo on the 7th of September 1936 – scientists from the University of New South Wales (UNSW) Vertebrate Palaeontology Lab publish their findings in the Journal of Vertebrate Paleontology.

The once suggested idea that Australia was dominated by reptilian carnivores during these 25 million-year-long intervals is steadily being dismantled as the fossil record of marsupial carnivores, such as these new thylacinids, increases with each new discovery. The diversity of mammalian carnivores at Riversleigh during this period rivals that seen in any other ecosystem, including the great mammalian carnivore radiation that developed in South America.

Timothy Churchill, lead author
University of New South Wales
Sydney, New South Wales, Australia.

The three new species were each found in the fossil-rich deposits in Riversleigh World Heritage Area.

The largest of these new species, Badjcinus timfaulkneri, weighed somewhere between 7-11 kilograms, about the same size as a large Tasmanian Devil. Alike the Tasmanian Devil, timfaulkneri possessed an extremely thick jawbone enabling it to consume the bones and teeth of its prey. This species is related to the much smaller, previously discovered B. turnbulli (2.7 kg) – which until now was the only other undoubted thylacinid known from the late Oligocene.

The dentary and isolated first molar of B. timfaulkneri were recovered from Hiatus Site which is even older than Riversleigh’s White Hunter Site where B. turnbulli was previously found, making B. timfaulkneri the oldest undoubted thylacine discovered so far.

Badjcinus timfaulkneri is named after Tim Faulkner, the director and co-owner of the Australian Reptile Park and managing director of Aussie Ark. Tim has dedicated his life to the conservation of Australia’s wildlife including the largest still-living marsupial carnivore, the Tasmanian Devil.

The second new species is Nimbacinus peterbridgei. This was about the size of a Maltese Terrier (~3.7 kg). This species is represented by a near-complete dentary from White Hunter Site. Nimbacinus peterbridgei was a predator that probably focused on small mammals and other diverse prey species that lived with it in the ancient forests. Species of Nimbacinus appear to be more closely related to the Tasmanian Tiger than other thylacinids of similar age. This means Nimbacinus peterbridgei is probably the oldest direct ancestor of the Tasmanian Tiger yet known.

Nimbacinus peterbridgei was named after Australian geologist, speleologist and bibliophile Peter Bridge. He has devoted his life to helping uncover Australia’s ancient past, particularly in the caves of Western Australia.

The last species, Ngamalacinus nigelmarveni was a ~5.1kg thylacinid – approximately the size of a Red fox. It was also from White Hunter Site at Riversleigh. The blades on the lower molars of species of Ngamalacinus are elongated with deep V-shaped carnassial (‘meat-cutting’) notches, suggesting they were highly carnivorous – more so than any of the other thylacinids of similar size.

Ngamalacinus nigelmarveni is named after Nigel Marven, a renowned British television documentary presenter famous for paleontology-inspired series like Prehistoric Park and Sea Monsters.

The presence of three distinct lineages of specialised thylacinids during the late Oligocene highlights how quickly they diversified after first appearing in the fossil record. These thylacinids exhibits very different dental adaptations, suggesting there were several unique carnivorous niches available during this period. All but one of these lineages, the one that led to the modern Thylacine, became extinct around 8 million years ago.

That lineage of these creatures that survived for more than 25 million years ended with the death of Benjamin, the last Tasmanian Tiger in Hobart’s Beaumaris Zoo on the 7th of September 1936.

Professor Michael Archer, co-author
University of New South Wales
Sydney, New South Wales, Australia.

ABSTRACT
New thylacinid species of Badjcinus, Nimbacinus, and Ngamalacinus are described from upper Oligocene deposits of the Riversleigh World Heritage Area, northwestern Queensland. Badjcinus timfaulkneri, Nimbacinus peterbridgei, and Ngamalacinus nigelmarveni are among the oldest thylacinids yet known and indicate an earlier diversification of the family than previously understood. Maximum parsimony analysis supports a sister group relationship between Ng. nigelmarveni and Ng. timmulvaneyi, but the relationships of the two other new taxa are unresolved. Bayesian dated total evidence analysis using morphological and molecular data supports the generic assignment of B. timfaulkneri and Ng. nigelmarveni but not that of Ni. peterbridgei. Both phylogenies herein support a taxonomic reassignment of Thylacinus macknessi to the genus Wabulacinus, a conclusion also supported by the results of previous studies. Body mass estimates based on molar size regressions indicate body sizes ranging from 3.7 kg to 11.4 kg for the new thylacinid species. Badjcinus timfaulkneri exhibits an extremely deep jaw compared with other thylacinids, with mandibular bending strength analysis suggesting that it was a highly durophagous carnivore much like the modern dasyurid Sarcophilus harrisii. This analysis also suggests Ni. peterbridgei had a dentary more similar in shape to that of plesiomorphic thylacinid faunivores such as Ni. dicksoni and T. cynocephalus suggesting that it had a relatively more generalist faunivorous diet. The molars of Ng. nigelmarveni suggest they were better suited for longitudinal slicing than the molars of B. timfaulkneri and Ni. peterbridgei, indicating a more hypercarnivorous diet compared with that of those species.

INTRODUCTION
There are 12 extinct species in the dasyuromorphian family Thylacinidae, 10 of which are from the Oligo-Miocene (26–5.3 Ma) (Rovinsky et al., 2019). Unlike during the Plio-Pleistocene (5.3–0.12 Ma), which is dominated by large hypercarnivorous species of Thylacinus (15–55 kg), the Oligo-Miocene radiation exhibits considerably higher generic diversity, with seven monospecific clades known from the Riversleigh World Heritage Area in northwestern Queensland, all of which were between 3–10 kg in body mass. This restriction in size suggests thylacinids occupied most of the small- to medium-sized faunivorous niches at Riversleigh (1–10 kg). Contemporary peramelemorphians (∼50 g–1.5 kg) (Gurovich et al., 2014; Travouillon et al., 2013; Travouillon et al., 2010, 2014.1) and thylacoleonids (∼10–50 kg) (Gillespie, 2023; Gillespie et al., 2016, 2019.1a, 2019.2b) occupied relatively smaller and larger carnivore niches.

The oldest undoubted thylacinid, Badjcinus turnbulli Muirhead & Wroe, 1998, is known only from White Hunter Site in the Riversleigh World Heritage Area. This and other late Oligocene sites at Riversleigh have not yet been radiometrically dated. White Hunter Site is interpreted to be late Oligocene in age because of the presence of the ilariid Kuterintja ngama, otherwise only known from the Ngama Local Fauna from the Etadunna Formation, which is magnetostratigraphically dated to 24.8–25 Ma (Myers & Archer, 1997; Woodburne et al., 1994). Riversleigh’s Faunal Zone A (FZA) deposits contain taxa that support a late Oligocene age (Arena et al., 2016.1; Travouillon et al., 2006). The relatively plesiomorphic dentition of B. turnbulli has led to difficulty in taxonomic assignment, with phylogenetic analyses placing it either as a basally branching member of Thylacinidae (Kealy & Beck, 2017; Muirhead & Wroe, 1998; Murray & Megirian, 2006.1a; Wroe & Musser, 2001), as a stem dasyurid (Wroe et al., 2000), or as a sister group to Dasyuromorphia as a whole (Kealy & Beck, 2017).

Only two other thylacinid fossils are known from upper Oligocene deposits. Originally assigned to Nimbacinus dicksoni but later reassigned to Thylacinidae incertae sedis, an isolated m2 (QM F16809) from D-Site at Riversleigh is the only other thylacinid known from Riversleigh’s upper Oligocene deposits (Muirhead & Archer, 1989; Murray & Megirian, 2000.1; Wroe & Musser, 2001). An isolated, broken M2 (NTM P2815–10) of a thylacinid is also known from the Pwerte Marnte Marnte Local Fauna (LF) in the Northern Territory, a deposit assumed to be upper Oligocene on the basis of biocorrelation (Murray & Megirian, 2006.2b; Woodburne et al., 1994). Although this upper molar, which is similar in size to the putative thylacinid Mutpuracinus archibaldi, was suggested by Murray and Megirian (2006.2b) to be the oldest thylacinid in the fossil record, there are doubts about its identification as a thylacinid (see Discussion).

Nimbacinus dicksoni Muirhead & Archer, 1989, is the best preserved and researched Miocene thylacinid (Attard et al., 2014.2; Murray & Megirian, 2000.1; Wroe & Musser, 2001). Multiple specimens including a near complete skull and skeleton are known from Middle Miocene deposits at Riversleigh and from the Bullock Creek LF in the Northern Territory. The dentition of Ni. dicksoni is relatively more plesiomorphic than that of other thylacinids (except possibly Muribacinus gadiyuli) in retaining slightly reduced metaconids on m2–4 and unreduced stylar cusps on M1–3. Previous morphofunctional analyses of the skull of Ni. dicksoni suggest it was a voracious predator capable of hunting prey larger than itself, with biting capabilities most similar to extant species of Dasyurus, rather than to the larger Thylacinus cynocephalus (Attard et al., 2014.2).

In addition to Nimbacinus dicksoni, four monotypic thylacinid genera are known from upper and lower dentitions recovered from Early and Middle Miocene Riversleigh deposits. These include the medium-sized (∼5–7 kg) Wabulacinus ridei and Ngamalacinus timmulvaneyi Muirhead, 1997.1, as well as the diminutive (∼1–2 kg) Muribacinus gadiyuli Wroe, 1996, and the large (∼18 kg) Maximucinus muirheadae Wroe, 2001.1a (Myers, 2001.2). The dentition of Ng. timmulvaneyi, W. ridei, and Ma. muirheadae have been considered to be relatively plesiomorphic in comparison with species of Thylacinus, but more derived than Ni. dicksoni (Muirhead, 1997.1). The diminutive Mur. gadiyuli is dentally the most plesiomorphic thylacinid known (Wroe, 1996).

Thylacinus macknessi Muirhead, 1992, from Riversleigh’s Early Miocene Neville’s Garden Site, is tentatively regarded as the earliest known member of the genus Thylacinus (Muirhead & Gillespie, 1995). This taxon possesses unique dental adaptations associated with a shift within the Thylacinus lineage towards hypercarnivory, including near complete loss of metaconids on m2–4, loss of entoconids, reduction of the lingual portion of the talonid margin in m2–4 and a lingual shift of the hypoconid so that the cristid obliqua forms a continuous longitudinal blade with the paracristid.

The powerful thylacine, T. potens Woodburne, 1967, from the Alcoota Local Fauna in the Northern Territory, has been interpreted on the basis of biocorrelation to be Late Miocene between 8.5 and 5.5 Ma (Megirian et al., 1996.1, 2010.1). It is the largest and most hypercarnivorous thylacinid known. It has been estimated to be between 30–56 kg in adult body mass (Myers, 2001.2; Wroe, 2001.1a), with some estimates exceeding 120 kg (Yates, 2014.3). Two additional species of Thylacinus with dental adaptations for increased carnivory, T. yorkellus and T. megiriani, are known from Upper Miocene to Lower Pliocene deposits (Murray, 1997.2; Yates, 2015).

Tyarrpecinus rothi Murray & Megirian, 2000.1, is a small thylacinid from the Late Miocene Alcoota Local Fauna of the Northern Territory. It is known from a broken maxilla that retains P2 and an isolated M2. The phylogenetic relationships and paleobiology of this taxon cannot be confidently determined until more complete craniodental material is found.

The quoll-sized Mutpuracinus archibaldi Murray & Megirian, 2000.1, known from a near complete skull with an incomplete upper and lower dentition from the Middle Miocene Bullock Creek LF in the Northern Territory (Murray & Megirian, 2006.1a), was initially considered to be an early thylacinid because of craniodental and basicranial similarities to plesiomorphic thylacinids such as Ni. dicksoni. However, more recent phylogenetic analyses suggest it should be regarded as Dasyuromorphia incertae sedis because of its lack of craniodental synapomorphies uniting it with undoubted thylacinids (Churchill et al., 2023.1; Kealy & Beck, 2017; Rovinsky et al., 2019).

Two further medium-sized (1–10 kg) incertae sedis dasyuromorphians are known from Miocene deposits; Whollydooleya tomnpatrichorum Archer, Christmas et al., 2016.2, from Miocene deposits in New Riversleigh (an area approximately 10 km southwest of the Riversleigh World Heritage Area) and Apoktesis cuspis Campbell, 1976, from upper Oligocene deposits at Lake Ngapakaldi in the Tirari Desert of South Australia. Either may be related to thylacinids or dasyurids (Archer, Christmas et al., 2016.2; Campbell, 1976). However, the lack of adequate fossil material to critically assess the relationships of these two enigmatic taxa precludes a more precise assignment beyond Dasyuromorphia incertae sedis. Whollydooleya tomnpatrichorum is only known from a single lower molar while the location of the skull and dentaries attributed to A. cuspis is currently unknown.

In this study, we describe three new species of thylacinid from Riversleigh’s oldest deposits: the upper Oligocene Hiatus and White Hunter Sites. The fossil specimens herein are all dentaries retaining near complete or partial lower dentitions.

Of course, it would be stupid to assume the Bronze Age pastoralists who wrote the Bible knew anything about Australia, or even a southern hemisphere. Since they believe Earth was a small flat place with a dome over it, they wouldn't even have considered hemispheres, northern of southern. Their view of the world was so narrow and restricted they thought all they had to explain was the small area within a day or two's walk of the Canaanite Hills, so nothing outside that small area was included; not an animals, mountain, continent or people; nothing.

So, the idea that they would have believed the Tasmanian tiger was magically created without ancestors 10,000 years ago or less is utterly preposterous and could only be believed by someone at least as blind to the evidence as were the authors of Genesis.

Refuting Creationism - A Badly Thought Out Tale In The Bible - Or, What Did The Animals Eat When They Got Off The Ark?

Long-lasting volcanism has significantly warmed the climate in the Earth's history, which in turn has reduced the climate-regulating effect of vegetation over millions of years.

Image: Mateusz / Adobe Stock

Animals leaving the Ark - with nothing for the herbivores to eat.

Millions of years for plants to recover from global warming | ETH Zurich

A newly-published paper in Science shows how plants take millions of years to recover from catastrophic climate change, yet the silly Noah's Ark tale in the Bible, not only has plants magically reappearing after 'all living substance' on the face of the Earth had been destroyed (Genesis 7:22) (did the authors not think plants were living things?), but then continuing as though nothing had happened.

Plants, of course, are at the bottom of the food pyramid since they are eaten by the animals that the carnivores eat. This is a matter of common sense, yet the authors of the Bible myth seem to have assumed that when they got off the Ark, ecosystems and food pyramids would have resumed where they left off a year earlier.

The authors were, of course, ignorant of almost all biology save that which they needed to find the best places to graze their cattle as the seasons progressed. They even seem to have assumed that 'living' and 'breathing' were synonyms because 'life' could be breathed into nostrils. (Genesis 2:7; 7:22).

How does modern Christian apologetics account for the recovery of ecosystems post 'Flood', during which all living substance had supposedly been destroyed, in view of our understanding of the dynamics of ecosystems? Modern Christian apologetics approaches the question of ecosystem recovery after the biblical Flood from various angles, often depending on the interpretive framework of Genesis—whether the Flood is understood as a literal historical event, a localized flood, or a theological metaphor. Here are some ways these issues are addressed in light of our current understanding of ecosystems:

1. Literal Interpretation with Divine Intervention
   • Divine Power and Miracles: Apologists who take the Flood narrative literally often argue that the recovery of ecosystems post-Flood was facilitated by divine intervention. They propose that God, who orchestrated the Flood, also supernaturally accelerated the repopulation and restoration of ecosystems. This might involve miraculous regrowth of plant life, rapid diversification of species from the animals that were preserved on the Ark, and an extraordinary rate of ecological recovery that is not bound by natural processes as we understand them.
   • Preservation of Genetic Diversity: Some argue that the animals on the Ark carried a rich genetic diversity, allowing for rapid adaptation and speciation after the Flood. This would theoretically allow for a swift recovery of ecosystems as species rapidly filled ecological niches.
   
   
2. Localized Flood Interpretation
   • Regional Impact: Another approach is to interpret the Flood as a localized event rather than a global one. This view posits that the Flood affected only a specific geographical area, possibly the Mesopotamian region. In this case, the surrounding ecosystems, untouched by the Flood, could have acted as a source for the repopulation of the affected area. This view harmonizes more easily with modern scientific understanding of ecosystems and their resilience after localized natural disasters.
   • Surviving Pockets of Life: Some apologists suggest that not all life was destroyed by the Flood, even within the affected area. Small pockets of life could have survived in higher elevations or isolated environments, providing a basis for the recovery of ecosystems after the waters receded.
   
   
3. Theological and Allegorical Interpretation
   • Non-Literal Reading: For those who interpret the Flood story allegorically or theologically rather than historically, the question of ecosystem recovery is not a pressing issue. In this view, the story of the Flood is primarily a moral or spiritual lesson rather than a literal account of historical events. The focus is on the relationship between God and humanity, rather than the specific logistics of animal and plant survival.
   • Symbolic Meaning of the Flood: This approach emphasizes the Flood as a symbol of renewal and new beginnings, rather than an event that necessitates a scientific explanation. The recovery of ecosystems in this context is seen as part of the broader theological theme of renewal and restoration.
   
   
4. Young Earth Creationism
   • Post-Flood Hyper-Evolution: Young Earth Creationists often propose that a form of rapid, post-Flood evolution occurred, where the animals released from the Ark quickly diversified into the myriad species we see today. This theory, sometimes called "hyper-evolution," is invoked to explain how ecosystems could recover so quickly despite the apparent bottleneck in species diversity that the Ark would have represented.
5. Scientific Considerations
   • Ecosystem Resilience: Apologists may also point out that ecosystems have an inherent resilience and can recover from catastrophic events more quickly than expected. They may draw analogies to modern ecological recoveries, such as the regrowth of forests after a volcanic eruption or the return of life after the last Ice Age, to argue that the Earth could have rebounded after the Flood.
   • Migration and Colonization: The possibility of animals and plants migrating from less-affected areas to repopulate devastated regions is also considered. Modern ecology demonstrates that ecosystems can re-establish themselves through processes of colonization and succession.
6. Integration with Scientific Theories
   • Day-Age and Progressive Creationism: Some apologists integrate the Flood narrative with scientific understanding by viewing the "days" of creation as long periods of time (Day-Age Theory) or by suggesting that God guided the process of creation and recovery in a way that aligns with evolutionary principles (Progressive Creationism). This allows for a more metaphorical understanding of the Flood and lessens the tension between scripture and modern ecological science.

In summary, modern Christian apologetics addresses the recovery of ecosystems post-Flood through a variety of perspectives, ranging from literal divine intervention to non-literal, theological interpretations. Each approach seeks to reconcile the biblical narrative with contemporary ecological knowledge, though the degree of reconciliation varies depending on the interpretive framework.

Doesn't the need to include so much additional information not present in the Bible, cast doubt on the truth of the biblical account?

The need to include additional information to explain or reconcile the biblical account of the Flood with modern scientific understanding can indeed raise questions about the nature and interpretation of the Bible. Whether this casts doubt on the truth of the biblical account depends on one's perspective on biblical interpretation, the nature of religious texts, and the relationship between faith and science. Here are a few key considerations:

1. Different Interpretative Approaches
   • Literalism vs. Non-Literalism: For those who take a literal approach to the Bible, the need to introduce extra-biblical explanations (like rapid post-Flood speciation or divine intervention in ecosystem recovery) may seem necessary to defend the text's historical accuracy. However, this can raise doubts if these explanations appear contrived or inconsistent with observable reality.
   • Theological Interpretation: Non-literalists, on the other hand, may argue that the Bible is not intended to be a scientific textbook and that its truth lies in its spiritual and moral teachings rather than in literal historical or scientific accuracy. For these interpreters, additional explanations are not problematic because they see the biblical text as conveying theological truths through symbolic or allegorical narratives.
   
   
2. The Nature of Religious Texts
   • Ancient Context: Some argue that the Bible was written in a particular historical and cultural context, where the primary purpose was to convey theological and moral truths, not to provide detailed scientific explanations. The ancient authors might not have had access to the scientific knowledge we have today, so their accounts reflect their understanding of the world at that time. The need for additional explanations today could then be seen as a reflection of the evolving understanding of the world rather than a flaw in the biblical text itself.
   • Progressive Revelation: Another view is that God reveals truth progressively, and that the Bible provides foundational spiritual truths that can be further illuminated by later discoveries in science and history. In this view, additional explanations are seen as complementary to, rather than contradictory with, the biblical account.
3. Faith and Reason
   • Faith-Based Acceptance: For many believers, the truth of the biblical account is accepted on the basis of faith, and additional information is seen as a way to better understand and articulate that faith in light of contemporary knowledge. The need for such explanations does not necessarily diminish the believer's faith in the biblical narrative but may instead enrich it.
   • Critical Examination: On the other hand, those who prioritize empirical evidence and logical consistency might see the need for extensive additional explanations as a sign that the biblical account should be understood more metaphorically or symbolically, or that it reflects ancient cosmology rather than literal history. This can lead to doubts about the historical accuracy of the biblical account, especially when the additional explanations seem to stretch credibility or conflict with established scientific understanding.
   
   
4. Impact on Biblical Authority
   • Preservation of Biblical Authority: Some apologists argue that providing additional explanations helps to preserve the authority and relevance of the Bible in a modern context. They see this as a way of harmonizing ancient texts with contemporary knowledge, thus maintaining the Bible’s credibility as a source of truth.
   • Potential for Undermining Authority: Conversely, if these explanations are seen as overly speculative or inconsistent with observable evidence, they may indeed undermine the authority of the biblical text in the eyes of some, leading to doubts about the reliability of the biblical account.
   
   
5. Philosophical and Theological Considerations
   • Role of Mystery in Faith: Some Christian thinkers embrace the idea that not all aspects of faith can be fully explained or understood, and that mystery is a central component of religious belief. In this view, the need for additional explanations does not necessarily cast doubt on the truth of the biblical account but rather acknowledges the limitations of human understanding.
   • Dialogue Between Science and Religion: Others see the dialogue between science and religion as a dynamic process where both can inform each other. The need for additional explanations might then be viewed as part of an ongoing conversation rather than a reason for doubt.

Conclusion The need for additional explanations to reconcile the biblical Flood with modern scientific understanding can raise questions, but whether it casts doubt on the truth of the biblical account depends on one's interpretive approach and understanding of the nature of the Bible. For some, it may indeed lead to doubts, especially if the explanations appear forced or speculative. For others, it may enrich their understanding of the Bible and deepen their faith, seeing the additional information as a way to harmonize ancient wisdom with contemporary knowledge.

For their tale to be even slightly plausible, the authors should have allowed for the long time-lag between the destruction of Earth's ecosystems and their recovery to the level at which they could sustain growing populations of animals and humans, let alone animals apparently evolving and speciating at the impossible warp-speeds creationists have now incorporated into their dogmas, to account for the impossibility of two of every species, living and extinct (some 220 million species) being housed on a wooden boat small enough not to be destroyed in a year floating about in turbulent waters, or being crushed under its own weight.

Creationists of course, have no problem including lots of new information to supplement what they claim is the inerrant word of a god, presumably because the god forgot to include it.

So, of what modern science were the Bronze Age authors of the Bible particularly ignorant when they were making up the 'Flood' myth?

In a paper by an international team of Earth and environmental scientists from the University of Arizona, University of Leeds, CNRS Toulouse, and the Swiss Federal Institute for Forest Snow and Landscape Research (WSL), led by scientists from Eidgenössische Technische Hochschule (ETH) Zurich, have shown how it can take millions of years for ecosystems to recover from catastrophes like volcano-induced climate change, and there could have been few such ecological disasters as a global flood and mass genocide would have been.

Their findings are the subject of a news release from UTH Zürich:

Millions of years for plants to recover from global warming

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Catastrophic volcanic eruptions that warmed the planet millions of years ago shed new light on how plants evolve and regulate climate. Researchers reveal the long-term climate effects of disturbed natural ecosystems - its implications both in geological history and for today.

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In brief

• Disruption of the functioning of vegetation due to warming can lead to the failure of climate regulating mechanisms for millions of years.
  
• Vegetation changes can alter the planet’s climate equilibrium.
• Geological and climatic history provide insight into the effects of global warming today.

Scientists often seek answers to humanity’s most pressing challenges in nature. When it comes to global warming, geological history offers a unique, long-term perspective. Earth’s geological history is spiked by periods of catastrophic volcanic eruptions that released vast amounts of carbon into the atmosphere and oceans. The increased carbon triggered rapid climate warming that resulted in mass extinctions on land and in marine ecosystems. These periods of volcanism may also have disrupted carbon-climate regulation systems for millions of years.

Ecological imbalance

Earth and environmental scientists at ETH Zurich led an international team of researchers from the University of Arizona, University of Leeds, CNRS Toulouse, and the Swiss Federal Institute for Forest Snow and Landscape Research (WSL) in a study on how vegetation responds and evolves in response to major climatic shifts and how such shifts affect Earth’s natural carbon-climate regulation system.

Drawing on geochemical analyses of isotopes in sediments, the research team compared the data with a specially designed model, which included a representation of vegetation and its role in regulating the geological climate system. They used the model to test how the Earth system responds to the intense release of carbon from volcanic activity in different scenarios. They studied three significant climatic shifts in geological history, including the Siberian Traps event that caused the Permian-Triassic mass extinction about 252 million years ago.

The Siberian Traps event released some 40,000 gigatons (Gt) of carbon over 200,000 years. The resulting increase in global average temperatures between 5 - 10°C caused Earth’s most severe extinction event in the geologic record.

Professor, Taras V. Gerya, co-author
Department of Earth Sciences
ETH Zurich, Zurich, Switzerland.

Formed 252 million years ago, these mesas of the Putorana Plateau in Siberia consist of thick layers of rock of volcanic origin.

Image: Sergei / Adobe Stock.

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Rivers have dug deep gorges over the course of time.

Image: Crazy nook / Adobe Stock

Move, adapt, or perish

The recovery of vegetation from the Siberian Traps event took several millions of years and during this time Earth’s carbon-climate regulation system would have been weak and inefficient resulting in long-term climate warming.

Julian Rogger, lead author
Department of Earth Sciences
ETH Zurich, Zurich, Switzerland.

Researchers found that the severity of such events is determined by how fast emitted carbon can be returned to Earth’s interior – sequestered through silicate mineral weathering or organic carbon production, removing carbon from Earth’s atmosphere.

They also found that the time it takes for the climate to reach a new state of equilibrium depended on how fast vegetation adapted to increasing temperatures. Some species adapted by evolving and others by migrating geographically to cooler regions. However, some geological events were so catastrophic that plant species simply did not have enough time to migrate or adapt to the sustained increase in temperature. The consequences of which left its geochemical mark on climate evolution for thousands, possibly millions, of years.

Today’s human-induced climate crisis

What does this mean for human induced climate change? The study found that a disruption of vegetation increased the duration and severity of climate warming in the geologic past. In some cases, it may have taken millions of years to reach a new stable climatic equilibrium due to a reduced capacity of vegetation to regulate Earth’s carbon cycle.

Today, we find ourselves in a major global bioclimatic crisis. Our study demonstrates the role of a functioning of vegetation to recover from abrupt climatic changes. We are currently releasing greenhouse gases at a faster rate than any previous volcanic event. We are also the primary cause of global deforestation, which strongly reduces the ability of natural ecosystems to regulate the climate. This study, in my perspective, serves as ‘wake-up call’ for the global community.

Professor Loïc Pellissier, co-author
Professor of Ecosystems and Landscape Evolution
Department of Environmental Systems Science
ETH Zurich, Zurich, Switzerland.

Reference

Rogger J, Judd EJ, Mills BJW, Goddéris Y, Gerya TV, Pellissier L: Biogeographic climate sensitivity controls Earth system response to large igneous province carbon degassing. Science, 8. August 2024, doi: 10.1126/science.adn3450

Abstract
Periods of large igneous province (LIP) magmatism have shaped Earth’s biological and climatic history, causing major climatic shifts and biological reorganizations. The vegetation response to LIP-induced perturbations may affect the efficiency of the carbon-climate regulation system and the post-LIP climate evolution. Using an eco-evolutionary vegetation model, we demonstrate here that the vegetation’s climate adaptation capacity, through biological evolution and geographic dispersal, is a major determinant of the severity and longevity of LIP-induced hyperthermals and can promote the emergence of a new climatic steady state. Proxy-based temperature reconstructions of the Permian-Triassic, Triassic-Jurassic, and Paleocene-Eocene hyperthermals match the modeled trajectories of bioclimatic disturbance and recovery. We conclude that biological vegetation dynamics shape the multimillion-year Earth system response to sudden carbon degassing and global warming episodes.

Rogger J, Judd EJ, Mills BJW, Goddéris Y, Gerya TV, Pellissier L: Biogeographic climate sensitivity controls Earth system response to large igneous province carbon degassing. Science, 8. August 2024, doi: 10.1126/science.adn3450

© 2024 he Authors
Published by American Association for the Advancement of Science. Reprinted with kind permission under license: #5845441238068.

The mystery of what the Ark survivors ate when they got off the Ark onto a sterile world is just one of those things that the Bible's authors were too ignorant of biology to have thought about. Others are how many herbivores did the carnivores exterminate in the first days and weeks. Shrews need to eat their body-weight in worms, slugs, snails and earthworms every 24 hours and are not averse to eating hatchling birds in nests. Bats consume moths by the dozen every night.

So, rather than being the saving of every species during creationism's favourite mass genocide by drowning, the 'Flood' if it had been real would have resulted in a mass extinction to rival anything caused by a meteor strike, catastrophic volcano activity or run-away global warming.

And, as science has now shown, Earth's ecosystems would still be struggling to recover from it, and yet the ignorant authors of the tale thought everything was back to normal within a few thousand years.

Refuting Creationism - The Dynamics of a Forest Ecosystem - Or How LIfe Is Fine-Tuned For Its Environment

The impact of insect herbivory on biogeochemical cycling in broadleaved forests varies with temperature | US Forest Service Research and Development

An interesting piece of research by a large international team led by the Forest Service of the US Department of Agriculture (USDA), has shown how herbivory by leaf-eating insects is part of a dynamic forest ecosystem, as the results of herbivory releases nutrients back into the soil from where they are recycled back into the forest canopy.

It is a lovely illustration of how, in contrast to what creationists claim is evidence that Earth is fine-tuned for life, it is actually life that fine tunes itself to fit the environment by an evolutionary process. There is nothing magical about it; it is simply the operation of basic laws of chemistry and physics, and the differential survival of those best fitted to live and reproduce within the ecosystem.

How the team did this research is the subject of an open access research paper in Nature Communications and is explained in a press release from USDA:

Creationism in Crisis - A Scimitar-Toothed Cat From Texas From At Least 2000 Years Before 'Creation Week'

Artist's impression of Homotherium

Credit: Sergiodlarosa, Wikimedia Commons

In the fossil specimen that is the subject of this research paper, two teeth are visible breaking out at the bottom: an incisor, and the tip of a partially-erupted canine. The scale bar at the top right of the image is 1 centimeter.

Credit: Sam Houston State University

“Ugly” Fossil Places Extinct Saber-Toothed Cat on Texas Coast | Jackson School of Geosciences | The University of Texas at Austin

Paleaontologists have shown that, what looked like a piece of rock, discovered on a Texas beach about 60 years ago, contains the skull of a young scimitar-toothed cat or Homotherium, that lived at least 12,000 years ago.

The skull was found on McFaddin Beach, south of Beaumont, by Professor Russell Long, of Lamar University, but was donated by U.S. Rep. Brian Babin, a former student of Long’s who worked for 38 years as a dentist.

Because the skull is that of a young Homotherium, the teeth are not fully erupted, so they have been preserved in the rock, in the skull, instead of being broken off, making identification possible.

The significance of the find, which would have originated in the now-submerged neotropical strip of land that acted as a corridor for species to migrate between Texas and Florida during the Pleistocene, is that it helps build a picture of the ecosystem in that coastal strip, where Homotherium would have been an apex predator.

The team of palaeontologists, led by John Moretti from Jackson School of Geosciences, Texas University at Austin, Texas, USA, included scientists from the Department of Biological Sciences, North Carolina State University, Raleigh, North Carolina, USA, the Department of Earth Sciences, University of Oregon, Eugene, Oregon, USA, and Sam Houston State University, Huntsville, Texas, USA. They have published their finding in the American Association for Anatomy journal, The Anatomical Record and describe it in The University of Texas Jackson School of Geosciences news release:

Creationism in Crisis - How Baobab Trees Evolved and Dispersed Over 21 Million Years

Baobab trees

Alex Antonelli (Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew)

Madagascan baobab trees.

The origin and long-distance travels of upside down trees - Queen Mary University of London

The baobab or 'upside down' trees, mostly of Madagascar, are an interesting example of how species radiate and evolve to fit different available niches in their immediate environment, but the genus also contains some examples of remarkable migrations and one example of the founder effect in evolution where a new species can arise by going through a very narrow genetic bottle neck where a new population is founded on an atypical sample of the parent species genome.

The evolution of the genus also includes examples of how, as species diverge, there is a period during which they can still hybridize and how hybrids themselves can be the foundation of new species.

Creationism in Crisis - Batty Evolution On Solomon Islands

Islands in the Vona Vona Lagoon of the New Georgia Group, Solomon Islands. This island group hosts four species of Hipposideros bats, including the two featured in the study of convergent evolution across the archipelago.

Credit: RG Moyle

Diadem leaf-nosed bat, Hipposideros diadema

Michael Pennay via Wikimedia (CC BY 2.0)

Researchers parse oddity of distantly related bats in Solomon Islands that appear identical | KU News

There is something strange about the Solomon Islands, lying east of Papua New Guinea and northeast of Australia. The bats that inhabit the islands seem to have evolved in ways that are difficult to understand.

Before creationists get over-excited and think we've found an example of species that didn't evolve but were made by magic, the question is not whether they evolved, but how? The scientists are in no doubt that the process was an evolutionary one and show no signs of concluding that a supernatural entity was involved. The puzzle is that genetically distinct species on different islands, occupying the same niche, have evolved such a high degree of phenotypic convergence that they are almost indistinguishable, so were previously classified as the same species, although genetically they are not even close relatives. The question is what is it about the environment on these islands that has driven this high level of convergence.

Each of the islands in the archipelago has a population of bats, usually 3-5 species on each island, consisting of a small, medium and large species and on islands with four species, an extra-large. One island has five species so gets an extra small bat.

That all seemed fairly straightforward on the assumption that the five distinct species had each found a niche on each island, and they certainly looked identical when comparing the different sized bats on each island. However, that was before we had DNA sequencing techniques.

DNA analysis has shown that the large bats on different islands, although identical in appearance, are not closely related - they have converged on that appearance from different ancestral bats.

This was discovered by a research team of scientists from University of Melbourne, Australia, the University of Kansas, USA, Jame Cook University, Australia and others. Their work is published open access in the journal, Evolution (the National Journal of Organic Evolution). It is explained in a University of Kansas news release: