Refuting Creationism - A Fruit-Eating Dinosaur - 66 Million Years Before 'Creation Week'

AI-generated depiction of Infernogallus jamesi

ChatGPT-6 Astra (based on a 2025 illustration by Danielle Dufault)

Life reconstruction of the Hell Chicken Infernogallus munching on early fruit, while a T. rex lurks in the background.

© Danielle Dufault, 2025

Rare fossil discovery reveals new dinosaur species that were specialized fruit-eaters | Royal Ontario Museum

A dinosaur nicknamed the “hell chicken” might sound like an especially unpleasant predator, but its remarkable skull suggests rather different eating habits. Infernogallus jamesi, a turkey-sized dinosaur from the approximately 66-million-year-old Hell Creek Formation of North America, appears to have specialised in processing soft plant foods, probably including fleshy fruit. Behind the entertaining name lies a useful illustration of evolution: a lineage descended from carnivorous ancestors acquiring a feeding apparatus suited to a very different diet.

The discovery is described in a paper in Nature Communications by Gregory Funston and colleague. Infernogallus belonged to the caenagnathids, a group of toothless, feathered oviraptorosaurs whose feeding habits have been difficult to establish. Its unusually complete skull has now provided evidence that isolated bones could not supply.

Using CT scans and anatomical reconstruction, the researchers investigated how its jaws would have worked. The arrangement of the palate and jaw muscles indicates that the lower jaw could move backwards and forwards, while opposing ridges and grooves helped process food inside the mouth. Rather than an apparatus for tearing flesh, this was suited to mashing softer material. Particularly revealing is the resemblance to feeding adaptations in living fruit-eating parrots: an example of convergent evolution, in which similar functional demands produce comparable adaptations in separate evolutionary lineages.

There is an important distinction here between reconstructing a feeding mechanism and finding the remains of an animal’s last meal. The evidence supports specialised herbivory and makes fleshy fruit a strong candidate, but it does not establish an exclusively fruit-based diet. Nor does it demonstrate that these dinosaurs dispersed seeds or drove the evolution of fruit. The authors identify a potentially significant relationship between dinosaur feeding specialisations and the diversification of flowering plants, while acknowledging that the ecological details remain uncertain.

For creationism, the difficulty extends beyond the familiar problem of a dinosaur living tens of millions of years before the supposed biblical Creation Week. This animal belongs within an evolutionary history of changing anatomy, changing diets and changing ecosystems. Its feeding apparatus was built from the inherited structures of a theropod skull, modified for a new way of obtaining food. Calling it a separately created “kind” supplies neither an explanation for those anatomical relationships nor a testable account of how its specialisations arose.

Refuting Creationism - Hundreds of Rock Art Figures In A Spanish Cave - From About 30,000 Years Before 'Creation Week'

AI-generated imaginative depiction of Palaeolithic people examining cave art.

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Location of Cova de la Font Major

Hundreds of Ice Age rock art engravings discovered hidden in plain sight | Antiquity Journal

Sometimes a gap in our knowledge of the past is sitting right in front of us, waiting to be recognised. In the Cova de la Font Major in Catalonia, Spain, visitors spent decades passing ancient engravings without recognising their Palaeolithic origin. Some even added their own names and dates over them. A cave that became a tourist attraction in 1993 has now emerged as an important repository of Ice Age artistic expression — another contribution to the long human history that young-Earth creationism attempts to squeeze into a few thousand years.

A study published in Antiquity by Josep Maria Vergès Bosch and Míriam Salas-Altès describes 280 graphic motifs, including 55 animal figures, first recognised as a Palaeolithic assemblage in 2019. Horses, deer, bovids, caprines and a bear feature alongside non-figurative markings. The discovery challenges the apparent scarcity of Palaeolithic cave art in north-eastern Iberia and adds to the evidence for a distinctive Mediterranean artistic tradition.

The chronology deserves precision. These are not 280 engravings each supplied with its own radiometric date. Their attribution rests on archaeological context and comparisons with established artistic conventions. Radiocarbon evidence places episodes of human activity in the deeper cave between approximately 40,000 and 26,000 years ago, while features of some animal figures support a pre-Magdalenian attribution. Those contextual dates should not be mistaken for direct measurements of when individual images were made. Dating calcite covering one animal figure is a prospect for future research.

Refuting Creationism - Traces Of Blood In A Dinosaur Fossil - Something Else For Creationist Frauds To Lie About

AI-generated depiction of Aratasaurus museunacionali

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A limb bone from the theropod dinosaur Aratasaurus preserved red blood cells containing haem and haem breakdown products.

Victor O. Leshyk

Traces of dinosaur blood found in world-first discovery

Discovering traces of dinosaur blood in a 115-million-year-old fossil is remarkable enough without pretending that someone has found fresh blood in a recently deceased dinosaur. Yet that distinction — between ancient biological material preserved through exceptional chemistry and ordinary tissue awaiting decay — is precisely what creationist propaganda has repeatedly obscured. A new discovery provides an opportunity both to explore the extraordinary information fossils can retain and to revisit the misrepresentations surrounding Mary Schweitzer’s earlier research.

The new paper in Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, by an international team led by Curtin University’s Professor Kliti Grice, reports haem-derived molecules and microscopic structures interpreted as mineralised red blood cells in limb bones of Aratasaurus museunacionali, a theropod dinosaur from Brazil. Haem is the iron-containing component of haemoglobin involved in oxygen transport. Finding its chemical signatures associated with cell-like structures inside the bone’s vascular canals offers a potentially revealing glimpse of ancient biology. It does not establish that fresh blood, functioning blood cells or dinosaur DNA have survived.

There is a familiar creationist sleight of hand here. When Schweitzer and her colleagues reported exceptionally preserved soft tissues in Tyrannosaurus rex bones in 2005, young-Earth creationists seized upon the discovery as supposed evidence that dinosaurs had lived only a few thousand years ago. The argument depended on treating “soft tissue” as though it necessarily meant fresh, chemically unaltered tissue, then assuming that its survival invalidated the geological evidence for the fossil’s age. Neither conclusion followed from the research.

Refuting Creationism - Ecuadorian Human Genome Refutes The Biblical Creation Myth

AI depiction of coastal hunter-gatherers in Ecuador 9,000 years ago

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Ancient Ecuadorian genomes | EurekAlert!

Ancient DNA is giving the people of South America something biblical mythology never provided: a history reconstructed from evidence. That history involves regional ancestry, movement, cultural change and communities persisting through environmental upheaval. A new study of ancient genomes from coastal Ecuador adds another piece to this picture, while also revealing a much darker aspect of life there: tuberculosis affecting an infant long before European contact.

In a paper published in PNAS Nexus, John Lindo and colleagues report four ancient human genomes from Salango, spanning approximately 2,300 to 740 years ago. Their genetic similarities suggest substantial local continuity over more than 1,500 years, despite volcanic disruption and major cultural transformations. Changing customs and social organisation need not mean that one population replaced another: communities can change their ways of life while retaining much of their ancestry.

The chronological challenge to young-Earth creationism requires a distinction. These burials are younger than the supposed biblical Flood, so their ages alone do not demonstrate survival across it. However, the researchers’ demographic modelling places the divergence of the coastal Ecuadorian lineage from other Southern Native American lineages at approximately 9,800 years ago. That estimate is model-dependent, rather than a direct date for a skeleton, but it points to population history extending beyond the entire conventional young-Earth chronology.

Claiming that the descendants of Noah migrated to the America during the last few thousand years, forgot all about the god who had caused the flood and the name of the man who had saved humanity and invented a language unrelated to that of their ancestors, while a divine trickster manipulated their genomes to make it look like they diversified thousands of years earlier, raises uncomfortable questions of anthropology and theology for creationists. Four genomes cannot settle every demographic question; they nevertheless add evidence to a history that cannot reasonably be compressed into recent dispersal from Noah’s family.

Refuting Creationism - Violent Death But Also Care And Compassion in Neanderthal Society - No Religious Handbook Required

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[credit]

Neanderthal scapula with spear hole.

View of Shanidar Cave from approximately the south.

Photo: G. Barker.

Fatal Neanderthal wound may be earliest evidence of a wooden spear attack on a human ancestor | University of Cambridge

Some 75,000 years ago, a Neanderthal in what is now Iraqi Kurdistan survived a devastating facial injury, apparently with help from others, only to suffer a probably fatal penetrating wound later in life. The remains preserve a striking combination of vulnerability, probable compassion and possible interpersonal violence: recognisably human behaviour from a time tens of thousands of years before the biblical creation story places the beginning of human history.

The individual, designated Shanidar A, is described in a new paper in Scientific Reports. Researchers led by Dr Emma Pomeroy identified a roughly circular, 15-millimetre-wide perforation in the left shoulder blade, consistent with a sharpened wooden spear entering through the chest and passing through the body. The injury occurred around the time of death and was probably lethal. Its position and the force required suggest a deliberate attack, although a hunting accident remains a possibility. The evidence supports a violent death; it does not supply the identity or intentions of whoever held the spear.

Earlier in life, Shanidar A had suffered a severe blow to the mouth, splitting a lower incisor lengthways. Subsequent wear and the accumulation of dental calculus show that the individual survived the injury for a considerable period. Given the likely pain and difficulty eating, the researchers suggest that survival involved care from companions. This is not a fossilised moral code, nor proof that Neanderthals thought exactly as we do. It is, however, evidence consistent with practical compassion in an extinct human lineage closely related to our own. The capacity to help an injured companion evidently has a much deeper history than the religious traditions that now claim ownership of morality.

For young-Earth creationism, the chronology is already fatal: these events occurred around 69,000 years before the supposed creation of the Universe in the familiar six-thousand-year chronology. The archaeological context adds another difficulty. Fragile remains survived within a cave sequence that researchers can investigate in detail, including evidence that a local flash flood disturbed the bones after decomposition. That is evidence of a particular event in a particular landscape, not of a recent worldwide deluge. Any attempt to impose the biblical catastrophe on this record must explain the actual sequence of deposition, decay, disturbance and preservation, rather than treating every mention of flooding as confirmation of Genesis.

Creationism Refuted - Now It's Transitional Dinosaur Egg Shells - From 195 Million Years Before 'Creation Week'

An imaginative AI-generated reconstruction of a basal sauropodomorph beside a clutch of eggs in Early Jurassic woodland, approximately 195 million years ago.

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Fig. 1 | Localities of Sinemurian basal sauropodomorph eggs/eggshells, stratigraphic section of the Zhangjiawa Member (Lufeng Formation, Dawa Dinosaur Mountain), and the rock containing Mutabilisoolithus dawaensis and associated embryonic skeletons.

From: Di, Z., Wang, H., Wang, T. et al (2026).

A team led by Di Zhiyong from the School of Life Sciences at Hebei University, in collaboration with others, spent six years meticulously analyzing the world's oldest and most complete amniotic eggshell structure.

Creationism thrives on gaps because it is easy to fool scientifically illiterate people looking for confirmation for their pre-exiting bias with a god of gaps and a false dichotomy fallacy. But one massive gap they invariably ignore is the gap between the real start of the history of life on Earth some 3.8 billion years ago and the mythical 'Creation Week' 6,000-10,000 years ago, as the Bible narrative claims. This means it's easy to refute creationist beliefs simply by discovering evidence from the long pre-'Creation Week' history.

Other gaps creationists crave are the ones that transitional fossils fill, hence creationists insistence that such transitional fossils are missing, despite them regularly being found by palaeontologists, as reported in this blog and the scientific journals. This article then will have creationists performing all manner of intellectual gymnastics to try to minimise it or ignore it altogether.

Some 195 million years ago, in what is now Yunnan, China, an early dinosaur laid eggs with a revealing combination of features: a thick organic membrane and a thin mineralised layer that had not formed a rigid, interlocking shell. These eggs pre-date the supposed creation of the Universe in the conventional young-Earth biblical chronology by almost their entire existence. They also preserve something creationists repeatedly insist is missing from the fossil record: an intermediate condition illuminating an evolutionary transition.

The fossil eggshell, named Mutabilisoolithus dawaensis, is described by Zhiyong Di and colleagues in a paper published in Nature Communications. Associated with an early-diverging sauropodomorph dinosaur, it combines flexibility with a limited degree of biomineralisation — the biological deposition of minerals. Its thin calcareous layer consists of shell units that do not interlock, while its underlying membrane is exceptionally thick. This is a soft eggshell, but “soft” does not mean entirely devoid of mineral reinforcement.

Refuting Creationism - Early Humans Lived In The Jordan Valley - 1.9 Million Years Before 'Creation Week'

A bifacial stone tool from ‘Ubeidiya

Credit: Omry Barzilai

A specialized imaging technique reveals mineral layers preserved within a fossilized Melanopsis shell (sample UB1).

Credit: Perach Nuriel

Study Finds 1.9 Million Year Out-of-Africa Migration wave leaves its mark in the Jordan Valley | EUROPEAN FRIENDS OF THE HEBREW UNIVERSITY

Long before anyone composed the biblical creation stories, early members of our genus were making stone tools and inhabiting the Jordan Valley. Research on the prehistoric site of ‘Ubeidiya, south of the Sea of Galilee, now suggests that this chapter of human history began earlier than previously thought — probably more than 1.9 million years ago. The landscape subsequently woven into biblical tradition preserves a much older history, written in sediments, fossils and archaeological remains.

The research, published in Quaternary Science Reviews brings together cosmogenic burial dating, ancient magnetic signatures and uranium–lead dating of fossil freshwater snail shells. Their combined interpretation favours an older chronology for the site, with implications for when tool-making hominins dispersed beyond Africa.

These inhabitants were not modern Homo sapiens. They were earlier members of our genus, probably associated with the Homo erectus/ergaster group, although the surviving fossils do not justify an unqualified species identification. Their presence, together with the site's Acheulean stone tools, contributes to an increasingly detailed picture of early human expansion into Eurasia.

Refuting Creationism - More On Denisovans Exposes Moronic Creationism

An artist's reconstruction of what a Denisovan might have looked like.

Image credit: Institute of Vertebrate Paleontology and Paleoanthropology / Chinese Academy of Sciences

Chinese Scientists Solve Puzzle of Identifying Extinct Group of Hominins----Chinese Academy of Sciences

One of the strengths of science is its willingness to leave a question open until there is enough evidence to answer it. An incomplete picture is an invitation to investigate, and an explanation that changes when new evidence emerges is a demonstration that the method is working. The developing story of the Denisovans provides an excellent example: an extinct group of humans is acquiring a clearer identity through the patient accumulation and comparison of evidence.

As a Xinhua report reproduced by the Chinese Academy of Sciences explains, Denisovans were first identified in 2010 through DNA recovered from a tiny finger bone found in Siberia. Scientists could recognise a distinct evolutionary lineage before they had much idea of what its members looked like. That imbalance between molecular knowledge and anatomical knowledge presented a problem that further discoveries and improved analytical methods could address.

Unintelligent Design - A Marine Amphibian With an Evolutionary Past - 237 MIllion Years Before 'Creation Week'

AI-assisted rendering of Gerrothorax maritumus, informed by newly discovered fossil evidence of the creature, which is the first fully marine amphibian on record. AI was used to adjust lighting, brightness, fish skin and amphibian skin.

Chen Geng/Guizhou University

New fossil evidence reveals the first fully marine amphibian, Gerrothorax maritimus, which dates to the Late Triassic period nearly 237 million years ago. The animal had a flattened body that was covered in bony armor, a potential defense mechanism against predators like ichthyosaurs.

Credit: Ryosuke Motani, UC Davis.

Researchers Unearth Fossil Evidence of First Fully Marine Amphibian | UC Davis

Why would an omniscient designer give an animal the inherited anatomy of a four-limbed vertebrate, then adapt that anatomy for life on the seabed? Evolution has a straightforward explanation: descendants inherit structures from their ancestors, and natural selection modifies what is already available. An unrestricted designer, supposedly capable of anticipating every requirement, has no comparable constraint. Yet nature repeatedly presents us with organisms whose bodies make sense as products of history.

A newly described amphibian adds another intriguing example. According to research, published in Nature Ecology & Evolution, Gerrothorax maritimus, an armoured amphibian that lived approximately 237 million years ago, presents evidence for a fully marine existence in a group whose living representatives have no equivalent ocean-going species.

The evidence includes two remarkably complete skeletons from Guizhou Province, China, marine sediments deposited far from major land masses, and strontium isotope proportions consistent with Triassic seawater. Together, these observations support an animal that inhabited the sea, rather than a freshwater carcass that happened to wash into it.

Creationism Refuted - Eland Collagen in Ocre In A South African Cave - From 50,000 Years Before 'Creation Week'

The Kilpdrift Complex located within the coastal cliffs in the De Hoop Nature Reserve, South Africa, where the samples for the study were collected.

Credit: Ole F. Unhammer
Universitetet i Bergen

Common eland, Taurotragus oryx

Credit: David Clode / Unsplash.

Antelope collagen found in 60,000-year-old ochre offers clues to early human practices

Some 60,000 years ago, humans occupying a shelter in southern Africa left behind traces of activities that modern science is only now learning to recover. An ochre-rich surface at Kilpdrift Shelter preserves proteins identified as belonging to the common eland, Taurotragus oryx, a large African antelope.

For those who insist that the entire Universe was created only a few thousand years ago, the difficulty begins before we even consider what these people were doing: they were already there, handling animal materials and ochre, tens of thousands of years before the supposed creation of their ancestors.

The discovery is described in a paper published in Proceedings of the Royal Society B by researchers from Kyushu University, the University of Bergen and the University of Copenhagen.

What that contribution represents remains an open question. Animal-derived material may have been deliberately mixed with ochre, or the surface may preserve traces of eland hides treated with it. The finding establishes an association between ochre and animal material; it does not, by itself, establish a particular recipe, a hide-processing technique or a symbolic purpose. Nevertheless, it opens a valuable window onto the technical, and possibly symbolic, behaviour of early Homo sapiens, particularly in environments where ancient DNA is poorly preserved.

Here, then, is another example of archaeology producing inconvenient evidence for biblical literalism simply by investigating the human past. The researchers are asking what people did, which materials they used and how surviving molecules can help reconstruct their activities. There is room for uncertainty about the precise activity recorded on this ancient surface. That uncertainty is not permission to compress 60,000 years of human history into a creationist chronology of six to ten thousand years.

Creationism in Crisis - Yet Another Of Those 'Non-Existent' Transitional Fossils - From 165 Million Years Before 'Creation Week'

Reconstruction of Sinojapyx giganteus.

Jie Sun.

Palaeoecological reconstruction of Sinojapyx giganteus.

Jie Sun.

Jurassic Giant Dipluran Reveals the evolution of Hexapods---- Nanjing Institute of Geology and Palaeontology Chinese Academy of Sciences

Another of those transitional forms that creationists insist are missing, has turned up in the fossil record — this time in the shape of a Jurassic relative of insects with an informative combination of ancestral mouthparts and developing tail pincers. Named Sinojapyx giganteus, it lived approximately 165 million years ago, presenting young-Earth creationism with two familiar problems: evidence of evolutionary transition and a chronology irreconcilable with a literal reading of Genesis.

The discovery, described in a paper in Proceedings of the Royal Society B is a fossil from the Middle Jurassic Daohugou deposits of Inner Mongolia, China. More than five centimetres long, it is the oldest confirmed dipluran and the largest fossil representative yet described. Diplurans, sometimes called two-pronged bristletails, are six-legged relatives of insects, rather than insects themselves.

Its evolutionary significance lies in the details. Living diplurans have mouthparts enclosed within the head, but those of Sinojapyx were exposed. Its paired rear appendages, known as cerci, were already pincer-like, yet remained symmetrical and lacked the small teeth characteristic of the more specialised pincers of modern japygoids. The researchers place it on the stem lineage of this living group and interpret its cerci as an intermediate condition in the evolution of sensory appendages into specialised grasping weapons.

This is what a transitional fossil actually looks like: a functioning animal with a mixture of ancestral and derived characteristics. It does not need to be an implausible hybrid of two modern species, nor must palaeontologists demonstrate that this particular species was the direct ancestor of a living one. Its significance is that it preserves an anatomical combination which helps reconstruct how later specialisations evolved. Dismissing it as “still a dipluran” would miss the point entirely: evolution within a lineage does not require its descendants to cease belonging to that lineage.

Refuting Creationism - Closing The Gap - Life In The Early Ediacaran - 600 Million Years Before 'Creation Week'

Macrofossils from the Doushantuo formation at Ancangping. A–F: Ribbon-shaped vendotaenids. G: Conotubular Protoconites minor H: Balloon-shaped Longfengshania. I: Tangled filaments similar to Zunyiphyton.

Ye, Q., An, Z., Chen, S. et al (2026)

Microfossils from the Ancangping assemblage. A: Schizofusa zangwenlongii. B, C: Ericiasphaera magna (C is enlarged view of rectangle in B). D, E: Appendisphaera anguina. (E is enlarged view of rectangle in D). F: Eotylotopalla strobilata. G: Eotylotopalla quadrata. H: Megasphaera ornata. I: Sinosphaera asteriformis. J, K: Tanarium cuspidatum. (K is enlarged view of rectangle in J).

Credit: Ye, Q., An, Z., Chen, S. et al (2026)

Tiny fossils reveal a missing chapter of ocean life after Snowball Earth

More than 600 million years before the supposed creation of Earth in a literal reading of Genesis, marine communities were already living through the aftermath of a planetary ice age. Their fossilised remains now provide another inconvenient glimpse of the immense history that young-Earth creationism requires its followers to dismiss. This was a world with an evolutionary past of its own, long before the appearance of familiar animals, let alone humans and their origin myths.

A study by Qin Ye of the China University of Geosciences in Wuhan and colleagues, published in Communications Biology, describes an assemblage of microscopic and larger fossils from Ancangping in Hubei province, South China. The researchers identified 35 species of organic-walled microfossils known as acritarchs, together with six broad forms of macroscopic fossils. Preserved together, these remains provide an unusually useful window into communities that included both organisms living in the water column and algae growing on the seabed.

The assemblage is provisionally dated to approximately 620–610 million years ago. That places it around 15–25 million years after the end of the Marinoan glaciation, one of the extreme climatic episodes associated with “Snowball Earth”, when ice extended into tropical latitudes. “After” therefore needs to be understood on a geological timescale: even the interval between the thaw and these organisms exceeds the entire young-Earth creationist chronology many thousands of times over.

Refuting Creationism - A Peculiar Belemnite From Wyoming - 160 Million Years Before 'Creation Week'

AI-generated impression of Wyoteuthis linsterorum in the Sundance Sea

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Artists impression of Wyoteuthis linsterorum

Jasom C Poole.

“Peculiar” new species of Jurassic squid found in Wyoming

Some 160 million years ago, a peculiar, thick-bodied relative of modern squid inhabited the sea that covered parts of what is now Wyoming. That alone places it inconveniently far outside the few thousand years allowed by a literal reading of Genesis. Now, two rare fossils have revealed that this animal was also a late-surviving representative of an ancient belemnite lineage — another small but revealing piece of an evolutionary history that creationism requires its followers to deny.

The newly described species, Wyoteuthis linsterorum, is the subject of a paper in Papers in Palaeontology. Although the headline calls it a Jurassic squid, it was a belemnite: a member of an extinct group of squid-like cephalopods. Its most striking feature was its exceptionally broad internal shell component, known as the rostrum or guard. Where familiar belemnite guards resemble slender bullets, these specimens are unusually stout, earning their owner the distinction of having the thickest known belemnite guards.

The fossils come from the Sundance Formation and date to the Oxfordian stage of the Late Jurassic. Examination of their external features and CT scans of their interiors led the researchers to assign the animal to the Megateuthididae, a family that had largely disappeared earlier in the Jurassic. Rather than representing a newly created form appearing from nowhere, Wyoteuthis appears to have been a surviving offshoot of an older evolutionary lineage, persisting in a regional refuge after its relatives had declined elsewhere.

For young-Earth creationism, the chronological problem is straightforward. An animal living approximately 160 million years ago cannot be accommodated within a universe supposedly created just 6,000–10,000 years ago. Nor does calling its remains a product of Noah’s Flood explain away the geological succession in which they occur. The problem is not merely the existence of a marine fossil on dry land, but its place within an ordered history of changing environments and successive assemblages of organisms.

Creationism Refuted - Humans Were Leaving Footprints In Lakeside Mud 11,000 Years Before 'Creation Week'

Artist's rendition of the landscape at White Sands during the last Ice Age.

Karen Carr

Fig. 2. Ancient human footprints and other ichnological features.

(A) A large canid track superimposed on a human footprint excavated on TH3. Photo Credit: K.B.S., US Geological Survey (USGS). (B) Linear features (LF) on TH2 that have been interpreted as travois pulled by humans, presumably during transport of resources (2). Photo Credit: K.B.S., USGS. (C) Orthomosaic of the surface of TP15 showing human footprints (Photo Credit: M.R.B., Bournemouth University). (D) Color rendered height map of multiple human footprints on TH0. (E) Color rendered height map of human footprints on TH(−3).

From: Kathleen B. Springer et al.(2026).

Footprints in the (white) sand: Humans experienced abrupt environmental shifts during the last ice age | University of Arizona News

More than 20,000 years before the present, people were walking along a lakeshore in what is now New Mexico, leaving footprints that would eventually become a serious inconvenience for biblical literalists. At White Sands National Park, those tracks preserve evidence of human lives during the Last Glacial Maximum — long before the supposed creation of the Universe in the chronology favoured by young-Earth creationists, let alone their alleged global flood and subsequent repopulation of the Americas.

Now, research published open access in Science Advances reaffirms that the footprints date to approximately 23,500–21,700 years ago. It also reconstructs a changing landscape: retreating Lake Otero, shifts from conifer forest towards steppe vegetation, and episodes of severe aridity. Some changes occurred within a human lifetime. These were people inhabiting a dynamic Ice Age environment, leaving their tracks alongside those of mammoths, giant sloths and dire wolves.

The history of the dating is itself an instructive example of how science works. The original age estimates, announced in 2021, attracted criticism because they relied on seeds from aquatic plants. Such plants can absorb dissolved ancient carbon, potentially making radiocarbon dates appear older than they really are. That was a legitimate methodological objection, and the appropriate response was to test it. A follow-up study reported in 2023 used pollen from terrestrial conifers and an independent technique that measures when mineral grains were last exposed to sunlight. Both supported the ancient chronology.

Creationism Refuted - Dinosaur Tracks Record Transition From Crawling to Bipedalism

Holotype of Pachychirotherium gardenaensis

Photo: @ University La Sapienza of Roma.

From Sprawling to Bipedalism: How Locomotion Evolved in Dinosaur Ancestors - Museum für Naturkunde Berlin

One of the familiar refrains of creationism is that the fossil record contains no transitional forms. Yet transitions need not be preserved only in bones: sometimes, animals left evidence of evolutionary change in the footprints they made. A new study of ancient reptile tracks reveals a stepwise acquisition of features associated with upright locomotion — changes that helped establish the conditions for the later evolution of two-legged movement in dinosaurs and their close relatives.

The research, by Lorenzo Marchetti of the Museum für Naturkunde Berlin and Hendrik Klein of the Saurierwelt Paläontologisches Museum, is published in Palaeontology, concerns early archosauriforms, members of the wider evolutionary group that includes archosaurs — dinosaurs, pterosaurs, crocodilians and their relatives. Their history extends back into the Late Permian, more than 250 million years ago: already an insurmountable chronological problem for a literal reading of Genesis.

Marchetti and Klein re-examined footprints from the Val Gardena Sandstone Formation of northern Italy, including previously undescribed specimens, and recognised a distinctive track type, which they named Pachychirotherium gardenaensis. This is a name for the fossil traces, rather than a newly identified species of skeletal animal. Comparisons with fossil feet suggest that their makers were early archosauriforms with an anatomy resembling that of erythrosuchids.

The wider comparison with Permian and Triassic tracks is particularly revealing. Late Permian forms retain evidence consistent with sprawling locomotion; some Early Triassic forms show transitional characteristics; and a fully erect stance probably emerged during the Middle Triassic. Increasing reliance on the toes, changes in toe proportions and a reduction in the relative size of the forefoot impressions accompanied this evolutionary transition. These features were assembled progressively, rather than appearing together as a completed package.

Refuting Creationism - Yet Another of Those 'Non-Existent' Transitional Fossils - From 150 Million Years Before 'Creation Week'

Life reconstruction of the Late Jurassic bird Yuezhuornis yangyuanensis.

Image by Chung-Tat Cheung

Life reconstruction of the Late Jurassic bird Yuezhuornis yangyuanensis.

Image by Chung-Tat Cheung

Not All Early Birds Evolved Toward Better Flight, Jurassic Fossil Suggests----Chinese Academy of Sciences

Creationists who insist that there are no transitional fossils might wish that palaeontologists would stop finding animals that refuse to respect their imaginary boundaries. A newly described Jurassic bird from China is another such inconvenience: an evolutionary mosaic combining bird-like features with conspicuously dinosaurian anatomy. And, to compound the difficulty for Bible literalists, it lived approximately 150 million years ago — long before their supposed ‘Creation Week’.

The animal, Yuezhuornis yangyuanensis, discovered in the Late Jurassic Zhenghe Fauna of Fujian Province, is described in a paper published in Nature. This crow-sized animal possessed bird-like pelvic and hindlimb features alongside serrated teeth and a hyperextensible second toe bearing a sickle-shaped claw — a combination reminiscent of its close dinosaurian relatives.

Its unusually short forelimbs provide another intriguing part of the story. Analyses of its limb proportions strongly support a terrestrial, flightless lifestyle, despite its placement within Avialae, the evolutionary group containing living birds and their closest extinct relatives. The researchers interpret it as evidence of exceptionally early flight loss. That interpretation necessarily involves reconstructing ancestral capabilities: the fossil provides anatomical evidence about how this animal lived, rather than a direct record of either its behaviour or its ancestors’ flight.

This matters because evolution has no destination. Early birds were not obliged to become progressively better flying machines, any more than every mammalian lineage was obliged to become a bat. Natural selection favours traits according to their consequences in particular environments; it does not work towards a predetermined ideal. A lineage exploiting opportunities on the ground could follow a different evolutionary course from one increasingly dependent on flight.

Refuting Creationism - Another New Dinosaur From The Isle of Wight For Creationists To Ignore

AI-generated impression of Invictibellatrix amberina in its natural habitat.

ChapGPT-6 Astra (based on a reconstruction
by Sergey Krasovskiy and Pedro Salas).

An artist’s illustration of the new theropod dinosaur, Invictibellatrix amberina (centre of the image), in its ecosystem on the Isle of Wight, United Kingdom in the Early Cretaceous (around 120 million years ago). It lived in what was likely a seasonally wet-to-dry floodplain environment and is surrounded by other dinosaurs including large long-necked rebbachisaurid sauropods (directly behind Invictibellatrix, centre) and relatives of Iguanodon (right). A spinosaurid theropod, potentially the apex predator of the time, fishes (left). Invictibellatrix has just caught and is consuming two small mammals. Gymnosperms dominate the environment as flowering plants (angiosperms) were not common at this time. Other reptiles including relatives to modern lizards, crocodiles and turtles enjoy the warm Early Cretaceous weather of the UK.

Credit: Sergey Krasovskiy and Pedro Salas.

UK dinosaur fossil identified as new long-clawed predator | UCL News

Palaeontologists do not need to set out to refute biblical creationism. They merely need to investigate the history of life, and the evidence does the job for them. Another example comes from the Isle of Wight, where a fossil has revealed a previously unrecognised predatory dinosaur that lived about 120 million years ago — long before the supposed ‘Creation Week’ of a literal reading of Genesis. While creationists struggle to squeeze the history of an entire planet into a few thousand years, researchers are reconstructing the evolutionary relationships and geographical movements of animals separated from us by immense stretches of geological time.

The fundamental problem creationists have created for themselves is that, because there is vastly more history pre-'Creation Week' than there is post-'Creation Week', by several orders of magnitude, virtually every palaeontological, geological and archaeological discovery incidentally refutes creationism, so the most risible and dishonest mental gymnastics have to be invoked to dismiss it all, and creationists end up looking both intellectually and morally bankrupt.

For example, as described in a study, published in Royal Society Open Science, a team led by University College London (UCL) researchers has identified Invictibellatrix amberina, the first recognised European member of a group of carnivorous dinosaurs known as megaraptorans. The discovery concerns a partial skull acquired by the Natural History Museum in 1924. CT scanning and anatomical comparisons have now revealed its significance. From its relatives, the researchers infer an animal around three to four metres long, probably feathered and equipped with substantial grasping arms and curved claws.

The discovery also helps fill a geographical gap in the group’s known distribution, supporting the hypothesis that megaraptorans dispersed from Asia through Europe towards the southern continents. This is the sort of question evolutionary science can investigate: how related animals diversified, where they lived, and how changing geography influenced their distribution. A fossil becomes evidence within a wider, testable account of life’s history.

Creationism In Crisis - A Jurassic Crocodile With Needle Teeth - 170 Million Years Before 'Creation Week'

AI-generated impression of Ctenosuchus tenuidens hunting.

ChatGPT-6 Astra

An artist’s restoration of Ctenosuchus tenuidens.

Artwork by Nathan Dehaut.

New species of Jurassic crocodile had unusually slender teeth | University of Portsmouth

Some 170 million years ago, in the rivers and lakes of what is now Morocco, a crocodile relative was exploiting a feeding niche very different from that of the large-prey predators familiar today. Named Ctenosuchus tenuidens, it had a long, narrow snout armed with exceptionally slender, closely spaced teeth. For young-Earth creationists, its existence presents the familiar chronological problem: an animal was living, feeding and participating in a complex ecosystem more than 169 million years before their preferred biblical chronology allows Earth itself to have existed.

The discovery is described in a paper in the Journal of Vertebrate Paleontology by Hamzah Imran of the School of the Environment and Life Sciences, University of Portsmouth, and colleagues. The animal belonged to the thalattosuchians, an extinct group of crocodile relatives. Its delicate dentition suggests a diet of small aquatic prey, such as tiny fish, shrimps and worms, rather than large, struggling animals capable of breaking those fine teeth.

This makes the fossil particularly informative about evolutionary specialisation. Teeth are not simply more or less effective in some universal sense: their usefulness depends on what an animal eats and how it feeds. A robust tooth suited to restraining substantial prey and a fine tooth suited to retaining small organisms represent different solutions to different ecological problems. An adaptation can therefore open up one feeding opportunity while limiting another. Evolution produces such compromises because natural selection favours reproductive success under particular conditions, rather than engineering an organism that excels at everything.

Creationism In Crisis - An Extinct Egyptian Crocodile Fossil In the Same Rock The Sphynx Was Carved From - 45 Million Years Before 'Creation Week'

Artist’s impression of the new species.

Credit: Adel Lee

The holotype skull (SMNS 10575) of H. cairensis n. gen. n. comb. (a) Photograph of SMNS 10575 in dorsal view, (b) interpretative drawing of SMNS 10575 in dorsal view, (c) photograph of SMNS 10575 in ventral view and (d) interpretative drawing of SMNS 10575 in ventral view. Abbreviations: f, frontal; ic, internal choana; j, jugal; m, maxilla; ma, maxillary alveoli; n, nasals; o, orbit; oc, occipital condyle; p, parietal; pa, palatines; pf, prefrontal; po, postorbital; pt, pterygoid; q, quadrate; sof, suborbital fenestra; sq, squamosal; sqp, squamosal prong; stf, supratemporal fenestra. Scale bar, 10 mm.

From: Paul M. J. Burke, et al (2026)

New crocodile species discovered in rocks used to build the Great Sphinx | UCL News

The Great Sphinx of Giza is an ancient monument carved into something vastly more ancient: rocks recording a world that existed long before humans, let alone Egyptian civilisation. A newly recognised crocodilian from the same geological formation lived about 45 million years ago. For anyone attempting to reconcile Earth's history with a literal reading of Genesis and its young-Earth chronology, the difficulty begins with the material from which the monument itself was carved.

As UCL News reports, researchers have identified Herugavialis cairensis, an extinct gavial, or long-snouted crocodilian, from Egypt's Mokattam Formation. Its nearly complete skull was discovered in the 1920s and had long been assigned to Tomistoma, the genus containing today's false gharial. CT scanning revealed distinguishing anatomical features, including a raised ridge around the eyes, supporting its recognition as a separate genus. The findings are published in Royal Society Open Science.

This is a useful example of how science corrects itself. A fossil does not cease to be informative because it has spent a century in a museum, and an identification does not become unchallengeable merely because generations of researchers have accepted it. Better tools and renewed scrutiny can expose distinctions that earlier investigators missed. Revising the classification strengthens our understanding of evolutionary history; it does not undermine the evidence that such a history occurred.

The animal also belonged to a very different Egypt. Shallow seas covered areas that are now land, and several gavial species inhabited its coastal waters. UCL describes a wider Mediterranean history in which crocodilian diversity fluctuated alongside changes in temperature and sea level, before the region lost its crocodilians around the Mediterranean drying crisis roughly six million years ago. Even that much later episode predates the conventional young-Earth creationist date for the entire Universe by orders of magnitude.

Creationism Refuted - A 700,000-Year-Old Elephant Tooth Shows The Bible's Authors Didn't Know Their Own Local History

An elephant tooth recovered from Gesher Benot Ya'aqov (GBY-NBA) — a prehistoric site in northern Israel, where early humans made stone tools some 700,000 years ago — has enabled researchers to reconstruct a lush Pleistocene landscape of woodlands, wetlands, and waterways. The findings provide a rare glimpse into the environment shared by giant elephants and some of the region's earliest human populations.

Tel-Hai University of Kiryat Shmona in the Galilee and Hannah Farrell, University of Haifa.

The elephant remains were discovered alongside basalt handaxes and cleavers, hallmark tools of the Acheulian tradition, one of the earliest and most widespread stone-tool technologies in human history.

Credit: Tel-Hai University of Kiryat Shmona in the Galilee and Hannah Farrell, University of Haifa

700,000-year-old elephant tooth reveals a lost ecosystem shared by early humans in the levant | EurekAlert!

Some 700,000 years ago, in what is now northern Israel, early humans were making stone tools in a landscape shared with giant elephants and exploiting their surroundings, hundreds of thousands of years before the supposed ‘Creation Week’ of young-Earth creationism.

That alone presents an insurmountable chronological problem for anyone who insists that Genesis is a literal account of history; a problem compounded by the fact that this history occurred close to where the origin myths in Genesis were written by people who were conspicuously ignorant of even their own local history.

Now, an elephant tooth has helped researchers reconstruct something of the world those people inhabited. A study published in Quaternary Science Reviews examines remains of the extinct straight-tusked elephant, Palaeoloxodon antiquus, found alongside Acheulean handaxes and cleavers at North Bridge Acheulian–Gesher Benot Ya‘aqov. By combining CT imaging, dental wear, isotope analysis and pollen evidence from the sediments, the researchers reconstructed a mosaic of woodland, grassland, wetlands and waterways.

The resulting picture is of a resource-rich environment that could support both large mammals and early human populations. Reliable water and varied vegetation apparently helped this part of the Hula Valley function as an ecological refuge along the Levantine corridor linking Africa and Eurasia. This was an inhabited landscape with an ecological history, rather than merely a collection of ancient bones and stones.