Excavation at the Neumark-Nord 2 in central Germany.
Photo: Professor Wil Roebroeks, Leiden University
More evidence has emerged that Neanderthals were far from the slow-witted, lumbering brutes of popular myth. In fact, they were highly organised, culturally sophisticated, and capable of processing food on what can only be described as an industrial scale.
This latest insight comes from a team of archaeologists led by researchers from MONREPOS (Leibniz Centre for Archaeology, Germany) and Leiden University (The Netherlands), in collaboration with the State Office for Heritage Management and Archaeology Saxony-Anhalt (Germany). Their findings were recently published in Science Advances.
At a site known as Neumark-Nord 2 in central Germany, dating back 125,000 years, the researchers have discovered compelling evidence of a bone-processing ‘factory’. Here, Neanderthals systematically broke up the massive bones of straight-tusked elephants and other large mammals—including deer, horses, and aurochs—to extract fat from the marrow by steeping the fragments in hot water. The straight-tusked elephant, which could weigh up to 13 tonnes, would have yielded enough meat to feed 2,000 adult humans their daily caloric needs.
This site predates the arrival of modern humans in Europe by tens of thousands of years, placing it firmly within the Neanderthal era. At the time, Europe was enjoying an interglacial period with a climate comparable to today's.
What information is there on the Neumark-Nord 2 archaeological site? Here’s an in-depth overview of the Neumark‑Nord 2 archaeological site, drawn from recent research and excavation records:
Location & Geological Setting
- Neumark–Nord 2 (NN 2) is situated about 10 km south of Halle and 35 km west of Leipzig in Saxony-Anhalt, Germany, within the broader Neumark–Nord lake landscape formed during the Last Interglacial (Eemian) period, around 125,000 years ago [1.1, 2.1].
- It forms part of a series of sinkholes and lake basins created in post-Saalian, Eemian, and early Weichselian sediments, offering exceptional preservation conditions for archaeological remains [3.1].
Excavation History & Techniques
- Excavations at NN 2 were carried out from 2003 to 2008, under the joint direction of the State Office for Archaeology Saxony-Anhalt, RGZM, Leiden University, and other institutions, often with student involvement as part of a field school [3.1].
- The site was investigated over an area of hundreds of square metres, exposing deep stratified layers linked to Neanderthal activity during the Corylus phase of the Eemian, approximately 125 ka [1.1].
Archaeological Finds
Lithics
- Two major archaeological horizons were identified:
Faunal Remains & Bone Processing
- From NN 2/2 alone, excavators recovered over 118,000 well-preserved faunal remains, including straight‑tusked elephants, aurochs, deer, horses, rhinoceros, bears, and other large mammals [4.1].
- The bones show heavy fragmentation and burning consistent with extensive butchering and fat extraction—Neanderthals crushed and heated them for marrow and grease production, indicative of centralised “fat‑factory” activity [6.1].
Environmental & Landscape Insights
- NN 2 sits within a semi-open, high-biomass Eemian lakeland environment. Pollen and ecological analyses reveal mixed woodland and grassland with rich herbivore populations that attracted hominin activity [2.1].
- Neanderthals are believed to have used fire deliberately to maintain open vegetation and exploit the lakeside landscape over centuries, making a measurable ecological footprint [1.1].
Behavioral & Anthropological Significance
- Neumark‑Nord 2 provides a rare, high-resolution snapshot of Neanderthal spatial organisation, planning, and large-scale resource exploitation well before the arrival of modern humans in Europe [6.1].
- The scale and deliberate nature of fat extraction—processing more than 172 large mammals at a single locus—demonstrates strategic nutritional planning and intensive site use over short timeframes [6.1].
Summary
- Date & Culture: ~125 kyr ago, Middle Palaeolithic (Eemian)
- Site Size: Excavated over ~400–600 m² per layer
- Artifacts: >20,000 lithics; Levallois & Micoquian tools
- Faunal Remains: >118,000 bones; elephants, horses, aurochs, deer
- Activities Identified: Butchery, marrow extraction, bone grease production
- Environment: Semi-open lakeside landscape supporting abundant herbivores
- Implications: Evidence of planning, resource management, environmental manipulation
Neumark‑Nord 2 thus stands out as one of Europe’s richest Middle Palaeolithic sites. Its dense archaeological and palaeoecological records offer profound insights into Neanderthal adaptability, intelligence, and environmental engagement—shattering outdated notions of them as merely primitive or unsophisticated.
The findings have been detailed in several articles, including this Leiden University news release and an article in ArtDependence Magazine.
Neanderthals ran “Fat Factories” 125,000 Years Ago
Fat is a very valuable food component, packed with calories, especially important when other resources might be scarce. Our earliest ancestors in Africa already cracked open bones to extract the fatty marrow from bone cavities. A study published in Science Advances demonstrates that our distant cousins, the Neanderthals, pushed fat extraction from bones quite a bit further.
The evidence comes from the Neumark-Nord 2 site in central Germany, dating back 125,000 years to an interglacial period when temperatures were similar to those of today. The site was situated in a lake landscape. At this location, researchers found that Neanderthals not only broke bones to extract marrow but also crushed large mammal bones into tens of thousands of fragments to render calorie-rich bone grease through heating them in water. This discovery substantially shifts our understanding of Neanderthal food strategies, pushing the timeline for this kind of complex, labour-intensive resource management back in time tens of thousands of years.
The findings, led by archaeologists from MONREPOS (Leibniz Zentrum Archaeology, Germany) and Leiden University (The Netherlands), in cooperation with the State Office for Heritage Management and Archaeology Saxony-Anhalt (Germany), indicate that Neanderthals operated what can be described as a prehistoric “fat factory,” carefully selecting a lakeside location to systematically process bones from at least 172 large mammals, including deer, horses and aurochs. These activities, previously believed to be limited to later human groups, now appear to have been part of Neanderthal behavior as early as 125,000 years ago.
This discovery builds on decades of research at the ca. 30 ha large Neumark-Nord site complex already discovered in the 1980s by Jena archaeologist Dietrich Mania. From 2004 to 2009, the Neumark-Nord 2 site was excavated in year-round campaigns by a team led by MONREPOS and Leiden archaeologists. The excavations included a field school, which trained over 175 international students, including dozens of Leiden participants.
In 2023, the team published evidence that Neanderthals hunted and butchered straight-tusked elephants—up to 13-ton animals that could provide over 2,000 adult daily food portions. The use of fire to manage landscape vegetation and the diversity of processed species at different locations reveal a level of planning and ecological engagement previously underestimated in Neanderthals.
What makes Neumark-Nord so exceptional is the preservation of an entire landscape, not just a single site. We see Neanderthals hunting and minimally butchering deer in one area, processing elephants intensively in another, and—as this study shows—rendering fat from hundreds of mammal skeletons in a centralized location. There’s even some evidence of plant use, which is rarely preserved. This broad range of behaviors in the same landscape gives us a much richer picture of their culture.
Professor Wil Roebroeks, senior author.
Faculty of Archaeology
Leiden University,
Leiden, Netherlands.
This was intensive, organised, and strategic. Neanderthals were clearly managing resources with precision—planning hunts, transporting carcasses, and rendering fat in a task-specific area. They understood both the nutritional value of fat and how to access it efficiently - most likely involving caching carcass parts at places in the landscape for later transport to and use at the grease rendering site.
Dr. Lutz Kindler, first author.
MONREPOS Archaeological Research Centre and Museum for Human Behavioural Evolution (LEIZA)
Schloss Monrepos, Neuwied, Germany.
Indeed, bone grease production requires a certain volume of bones to make this labour-intensive processing worthwhile and hence the more bones assembled, the more profitable it becomes.
Professor Sabine Gaudzinski-Windheuser, co-author.
MONREPOS Archaeological Research Centre and Museum for Human Behavioural Evolution (LEIZA)
Neuwied, Germany.
The Neumark-Nord discoveries are continuing to reshape our view of Neanderthal adaptability and survival strategies. They show that Neanderthals could plan ahead, process food efficiently, and make sophisticated use of their environment.
The authors emphasise the sheer quantity of herbivores that Neanderthals must have routinely been “harvesting” in this warm-temperate phase: beyond the remains of minimally 172 large mammals processed at that small site alone within a very short period, hundreds of herbivores, including straight-tusked elephants, were butchered around the Neumark-Nord 1 lake in the early Last Interglacial, within the excavated areas only. Other exposures in the wider area around Neumark-Nord have yielded more coarse-grained evidence of regular exploitation of the same range of prey animals, at sites such as Rabutz, Gröbern and Taubach. The last site contained cut-marked remains of 76 rhinos and 40 straight-tusked elephants.
Safely assuming that with these sites we are only looking at the tip of the proverbial ice-berg of Neanderthal impact on herbivore populations, especially on slowly-reproducing taxa, could have been substantial during the Last Interglacial.
Professor Wil Roebroeks.
The sheer size and extraordinary preservation of the Neumark-Nord site complex gives us a unique chance to study how Neanderthals impacted their environment, both animal and plant life. That’s incredibly rare for a site this old—and it opens exciting new possibilities for future research.
Dr. Fulco Scherjon, co-author
MONREPOS Archaeological Research Centre and Museum for Human Behavioural Evolution (LEIZA)
Neuwied, Germany.
Publication:
The discovery at Neumark-Nord 2 is yet another devastating blow to the claims of Bible-literalist creationists who insist that the Earth is only a few thousand years old and that humans were specially created in their current form. Here, we have an unambiguous, well-dated Neanderthal site from around **125,000 years ago**, containing thousands of stone tools, butchered animal bones, and signs of systematic fat extraction—clear indicators of planning, cooperation, and sophisticated survival strategies. These facts are not based on speculation but on stratified, radiometrically dated evidence interpreted through rigorous scientific methodology.Abstract
Diet played a key role in human evolution, making the study of past diet and subsistence strategies a crucial research topic within paleoanthropology. Lipids are a crucial resource for hunter-gatherers, especially for foragers whose diet is based heavily on animal foods. Recent foragers have expended substantial amounts of energy to obtain this resource, including time-consuming production of bone grease, a resource intensification practice thus far only documented for Upper Paleolithic populations. We present archaeological data from the lake landscape of Neumark-Nord (Germany), where Last Interglacial Neanderthals processed at least 172 large mammals at a water’s edge site. Their (partial) carcasses were transported to this location for the extraction of within-bone nutrients, particularly bone grease. This “fat factory” constitutes a well-documented case of grease rendering predating the Upper Paleolithic, with the special task location devoted to extraction of nutritionally important lipids forming an important addition to our knowledge of Neanderthal adaptations.
INTRODUCTION
Diet played a key role in the development and expansion of the human niche, and studying past strategies to obtain proteins, lipids, and carbohydrates, as well as the relative importance of these macronutrients through time, constitutes important research topics in human evolutionary studies (1, 2). Here, we present data on food processing by Last Interglacial Neanderthals, which show that these hunter-gatherers, similar to recent foragers, already focused heavily on the exploitation of within-bone nutrients—and particularly on bone grease—125,000 years ago.
Fat, especially within-bone lipids, is a crucial resource for hunter-gatherers in most environments, becoming increasingly vital among foragers whose diet is based heavily on animal foods, whether seasonally or throughout the year (3, 4). When subsisting largely on animal foods, a forager’s total daily protein intake is limited to not more than about 5 g/kg of body weight by the capacity of liver enzymes to deaminize the protein and excrete the excess nitrogen (4–6). For hunter-gatherers (including Neanderthals), with body weights typically falling between 50 and 80 kg (7, 8), the upper dietary protein limit is about 300 g/day or just 1200 kcal, a food intake far short of a forager’s daily energy needs. The remaining calories must come from a nonprotein source, either fat or carbohydrate (4, 9). Sustained protein intakes above ~300 g can lead to a debilitating, even lethal, condition known to early explorers as “rabbit starvation.” For mobile foragers, obtaining fat can become a life-sustaining necessity during periods when carbohydrates are scarce or unavailable, such as during the winter and spring.
There is very little fat in most ungulate muscle tissues, especially the “steaks” and “roasts” of the thighs and shoulders, regardless of season, or an animal’s age, sex, or reproductive state (6). Mid- and northern-latitude foragers commonly fed these meat cuts to their dogs or abandoned them at the kill (10). The most critical fat deposits are concentrated in the brain, tongue, brisket, and rib cage; in the adipose tissue; around the intestines and internal organs; in the marrow; and in the cancellous (spongy) tissue of the bones (i.e., bone grease). With the notable exception of the brain, tongue, and very likely the cancellous tissue of bones, the other fat deposits often become mobilized and depleted when an animal is undernourished, pregnant, nursing, or in rut (11).
Exploitation of fat-rich marrow from the hollow cavities of skeletal elements, especially the long bones, is fairly easy and well documented in the archaeological record of Neanderthals [e.g., (12–14)]. On the basis of ethnohistoric accounts, as well as on experimental studies, the production of bone grease, an activity commonly carried out by women, requires considerable time, effort, and fuel (15–19). Bones, especially long-bone epiphyses (joints) and vertebrae, are broken into small fragments with a stone hammer and then boiled for several hours to extract the grease, which floats to the surface and is skimmed off upon cooling. For foragers heavily dependent on animal foods, bone grease provides a calorie-dense nonprotein food source that can play a critical role in staving off rabbit starvation (11).
The time depth of this practice is unclear. Presently, it has been documented as far back as 28,000 years ago (20), although it may well have a much deeper antiquity, extending into the Middle Pleistocene (21). Grease extraction has been suggested for various Middle Paleolithic faunal assemblages, such as Roc de Marsal, Les Pradelles, and Grotte du Noisetier in France. As shown by Morin (3), at these sites, a clear-cut interpretation is problematic because of equifinality issues, and convincing evidence from the Lower and Middle Paleolithic has yet to be published (3, 21). Grease rendering is not easy to identify in the archaeological record. While it is sometimes possible to identify physicochemical alteration of bone tissue as a result of low-temperature cooking, diagenesis during long-term burial of bones can also mimic these modifications (22). Furthermore, grease rendering’s most obvious characteristic—a high degree of cancellous bone fragmentation—can also result from a variety of postdepositional processes overprinting a faunal assemblage, hindering a clear-cut identification of the cause(s) of fragmentation (3, 21, 23).
Here, we present data from the Last Interglacial lake landscape of Neumark-Nord (Germany) (24, 25). In this area, Neanderthals practiced bulk harvesting of a wide range of animal resources including forest elephants, the largest terrestrial mammals of the Pleistocene (26). Here, we focus on one of the richest locales, Neumark-Nord 2/2 (NN2/2). We present data showing that body parts from a minimum of 172 large mammals (mainly bovids, horses, and deer) were brought to NN2/2 for intensive lipid processing, an activity that took place over a comparatively short period within a very small water-edge location. This processing entailed marrow extraction, as well as the creation of tens of thousands of small bone fragments for the production of grease. This represents a well-documented case of this resource intensification practice predating the Upper Paleolithic and an important addition to the behavioral repertoire of Neanderthals.
Below, we situate these data within the broader record of Neanderthal subsistence activities in the Last Interglacial lake landscape of Neumark-Nord, where long-term and large-scale fieldwork over an area of about 30 ha has enabled us to create a “snapshot” of Neanderthal hunting and processing activities. Last, we contextualize the high-resolution evidence from this one locality with data on subsistence activities in the wider Neumark-Nord lake landscape, and we discuss the wider implications of this study for our understanding of Neanderthal subsistence strategies.
Neumark-Nord is located in eastern Germany, ~10 km south of the city of Halle, in an area that was covered by the Saalian glaciers during Marine Isotope Stage (MIS) 6 but out of reach of the subsequent (Weichselian) glaciation (Fig. 1). The area’s location between the maximum extensions of the MIS 6 and MIS 2 glaciers is relevant for understanding the quality and quantity of well-preserved Last Interglacial basin sequences in this part of Europe. These sites developed within sediment-receiving structures created by a range of glacial and postglacial processes and exposed through quarrying. These basins have provided a rich paleoenvironmental record for the Last Interglacial (or Eemian), a warm-temperate period from which we have relatively few exposures elsewhere in Europe.
Fig. 1. Location of Neumark-Nord (Germany).
The site’s position is depicted relative to the maximum extent of the Saalian and Weichselian glaciations.
The basins NN1 and NN2 were found in the open cast (Tertiary) lignite mine of Mücheln (51°19′28″N, 11°53′56″E). From 1985 onward, the archaeologist Mania and his research group (24, 27–29) investigated the large NN1 lake basin in a series of rescue interventions, until the end of the lignite mining activities in the mid-1990s. Mania also found the small basin NN2, about 100 m northeast of NN1, investigated by the current authors from 2004 to 2008. Lake basin NN1 covered an area of about 24 ha, while NN2 represents what remains of a smaller and shallow water body, about 1.6 ha in documented size (Fig. 2). The infills of both basins cover the complete Last Interglacial, the duration of which has been calculated to be about 11,000 years for northern/central Europe (30) [but see (31)]. This has been further subdivided into distinct Pollen Assemblage Zones (PAZs), which reflect its characteristic vegetation succession (30, 32). On the basis of stratigraphic and geochronological position, paleobotanical data, and alternating lake transgressions and regressions during the individual PAZs, the find bearing deposits of both basins can be correlated in high spatial and temporal resolution (33–35).
Fig. 2. The NN1 and NN2 basins.
Topographic map of the NN1 basin (A) and the small NN2 basin (B), with indicated the locations of the NN1 archaeological rescue interventions (black rectangles) and the position of the NN2 excavated area (in black). On the basis of (35), with data derived from figure 38 of (24) and (29). A N-S cross-section through the NN2 basin is shown in (C) [modified from (41)], the basin infill situated between the basal Saalian till deposits and the overlying Weichselian loess.
Hominins left abundant traces of their presence in this lake-dotted landscape, especially in the early parts of the Last Interglacial, i.e., during PAZ III and PAZ IV, with a total duration of ~2850 years. During this period, the vegetation surrounding the water bodies was largely open (36). Winter temperatures were roughly similar to those historically documented, as suggested by a study (37) of the rich plant record from the sites (average coldest month of −2° to 0°C, currently −1° to 0°C). Summer temperatures reached higher values, with the average for the warmest month (July) estimated to have been +19° to +25°C compared to +17.5°C for recent values. Traces of a more ephemeral hominin presence in this lake landscape date to the Carpinus (hornbeam) phase (PAZ V), characterized here by a closed-canopy forest vegetation.
Apart from isolated bones and lithics scattered throughout the interglacial sequence, three main find contexts characterize the paleontological and archaeological record of the Eemian here: (i) in the lake margins of the two basins, high-density concentrations of flint artifacts and highly fragmented bones; (ii) in the extensive littoral zones of NN1, at some distance from the lake proper, partly articulated and disarticulated bones from individual large mammal skeletons, not always associated with lithics, distributed over small areas (these include the recently published Palaeoloxodon antiquus finds from Neumark Nord 1 (26); (iii) in gyttja deposits in the central part of NN1 basin, articulated skeletons, partially preserved skeletons of single individuals, and skeletal remains from multiple individuals, mostly of Dama dama, some with cut marks and hunting lesions (38).
At NN2, find level NN2/2B yielded a high-density flint and bone concentration—the focus of this contribution—that formed along the northern margin of the water body. It contained 16,524 flint artifacts, ~98% of these consisting of small (<50 mm) debitage from on-site knapping of flint nodules sourced from the local glacial deposits, with a total weight of 44.4 kg (39). Larger flakes were retouched into simple scrapers and/or denticulates. The site also yielded an exceptional series of manuports, elements of a percussive toolkit with anvils and hammerstones, including pieces up to 2.2 kg in weight (40) (see the Supplementary Materials for details on the lithic assemblage). Alongside evidence for Neanderthal knapping activities at NN2/2/B, 118,774 heavily fragmented and cut marked faunal remains were recovered, representing a minimum number of 172 large mammals, including horses [minimum number of individuals (MNI) = 56], bovids (MNI = 45), and cervids (MNI = 54).
Elsewhere, we have published detailed overviews of the NN2 sedimentary infill, based on a series of multidisciplinary studies of the location (25, 41), and limit ourselves here to the general picture. The basin formed through the intrusion of Tertiary brown coal deposits, lignite, into the overlying Quaternary sediments. This created an undulating surface containing many depressions in the area such as NN2, which functioned as a sediment trap during the Last Interglacial. In contrast to the meters-deep NN1 lake, the NN2 basin was mostly a small pond with varying water tables, up to about 1 m in depth. Continuous subsidence and concomitant infilling kept the basin in its bowl-like shape for the major part of the Eemian.
The artifact-bearing deposits, situated in lithological unit 8, were documented in a number of sections throughout the 2004–2008 excavations. A key section here is Hauptprofil 7 (HP7), exposing the deepest part of the infill (Fig. 2). This section was sampled for a range of dating and paleoenvironmental analyses and for sedimentological and soil-micromorphological studies, while a set of high-resolution paleomagnetic samples was also acquired [see (25)]. All samples were collected from the very same part of the HP7 section, enabling a direct comparison of results on a 5-cm stratigraphic sampling interval over the entire sequence. All data indicate a geologically rapid infilling of the shallow basin, with sedimentation an almost continuous process, without pronounced soil formation in periods of nondeposition (42). Calcareous silt loams were deposited by overland flow, mainly by after flow, in a very calm sedimentary setting in placid water, with only short interruptions during which the depression fell dry. This low-energy sedimentation did not cause any discernible lateral movement of the archaeological material (43, 44). The main find level (NN2/2B) was excavated over an area of 491 m2. Along the basin’s northern margin, this unit is only 20 cm thick, but it increases in thickness and complexity toward the center, where it develops into several, partly laminated, substrata with a total thickness of up to 1 m.
The rich NN2/2B assemblage accumulated over a short period. Pollen analysis (33) allowed us to situate unit 8 in the Corylus zone IVa2 of the Eemian (41), with an estimated duration of 1200 years (32). In HP7, this PAZ zone is recorded in deposits with a thickness of 130 cm, indicating a sedimentation rate of 0.11 cm/year (41). Assuming constant sedimentation during pollen zone IVa, we can calculate that unit 8 and its associated archaeology accumulated within a maximum period of between 288 (34) and 455 years (33), a high temporal resolution for a Pleistocene archaeological context of that age. Since some large, well-preserved faunal elements such as a complete bovid skull were recovered encased in ~60 cm of finely laminated sediments (see Supplementary Text), sedimentation rates occasionally must have been substantially higher than the estimate mentioned above.
Most archaeological finds were uncovered along the rim of the basin and from an adjacent step in the basin’s slope [see Fig. 2 and (35)]. The excavation proceeded over a length of 30 m from the northern margin to the central part of the basin in the south (Fig. 2). Along its northern margin, the find-bearing unit consists of a fine-grained sandy silt layer of 10 to 20 cm in thickness. From here, unit 8 proceeds downslope toward the basin center, where the layer dissolves shortly behind our main sampling profile HP7. Between the edge of the water body and the center, the basin morphology contains a step. In this area, sediment thickness increases up to 1 m of sandy silts and silts. More than two-thirds of all the finds recovered during excavation were recorded in this ~15 m–by–5 m large “step area.” In this area, the excavations documented very dense clusters of bone fragments, flint artifacts, and manuports, sometimes more than 1000 single finds/m2. Studies of the horizontal distribution of the finds, together with some lithic and bone refits and an absence of any substantial lateral movement, strongly suggest that we are dealing with a distribution of archaeological material in primary context, formed in a low-energy sedimentary setting, with no displacement due to hydrodynamic sorting (43, 44). Many of these finds, bone fragments, flint artifacts, and pebbles, formed several notably dense semicircular concentrations with diameters of 40–80 cm within this step area (Fig. 3).
Fig. 3. Spatial distribution of lithics and faunal remains.
(A) Interpolated density map of the NN2/2B flint artifacts (n = 16,524). (B) Interpolated density map of the NN2/2B faunal remains (n = 118,774). (C) Magnified plan of the step area with all three-dimensionally recorded bone, lithic, and manuport specimens (bone, light blue; lithic, dark blue; manuport, orange).
Lutz Kindler et al.
Large-scale processing of within-bone nutrients by Neanderthals, 125,000 years ago.
Sci. Adv. 11, eadv1257 (2025). DOI:10.1126/sciadv.adv1257.
Copyright: © 2025 The authors.
Published by the American Association for the Advancement of Science. Open access.
Reprinted under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International license (CC BY 4.0)
Such a site simply cannot be reconciled with a literal interpretation of the Genesis narrative, which claims that humans were created less than 10,000 years ago and that the entire human population descends from just two individuals in a garden paradise. Nor can it be made to fit the post-Flood repopulation model, which posits that all human cultures and technologies sprang from a single boatload of survivors around 4,000 years ago. Neanderthals not only predate that timeline by over 100,000 years, they exhibit behaviours that directly contradict the idea that all non-modern human fossils are either apes, degenerate post-Flood humans, or misinterpreted remains.
What’s particularly damaging to the creationist worldview is that these behaviours—long-term planning, resource optimisation, environmental manipulation, and dietary innovation—are all recognisably human, but they are being carried out by a hominin species that creationists insist shouldn't exist at all. The Neumark-Nord 2 site doesn't just undermine the timeline of young-Earth creationism; it also dismantles their false dichotomy between “fully human” and “fully ape.” Neanderthals blur that line irreparably—and they do so with every bone they broke and every fire they lit.
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