Creationism Refuted - Consciousness Is Yielding Up Its Secrets To Science

Quantum Consciousness

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Microtubules, seen in yellow in this image, are part of the skeleton of plant and animal cells

Wellesley - Wellesley team’s new research on anesthesia unlocks important clues about the nature of consciousness | Wellesley College

If there is one thing that creationists get right it is that science is a threat to their childish superstition, so they have two main lines of argument: firstly they tell us how their religion disagrees with science, using Bible quotes as though they are indisputable facts, not just claims written down and declared to be true; secondly they attack science as though finding fault with one aspect or another of science somehow invalidates all of it and their superstition wins by default.

Neither of these tactics ever provide any evidence for creationism of course because there is none to produce, but they have the desired effect of making the creationist feel superior to those clever-dicky, elitist scientists with their big words.

And one of their favourite lines of attack is to claim that 'science can't explain consciousness', conveniently forgetting to add the word 'yet' to the end of their claim. A basic understanding of science and the history of science, would tell them that not yet understanding something doesn't invalidate science, it invalidates ignorance. Science never used to understand lightening or earthquakes, or diseases, or atoms, or biodiversity and the appearance of kinship between species, but now it does.

And now we are beginning to understand consciousness too. We know, for example, that it doesn't exist independently of a fully-functional brain because it can be abolished with chemicals and by injury, so we know that whatever the mechanism, it is a function of neurophysiology and so amenable to scientific investigation and explanation. The questions are the 'how' and the 'what' that makes up all scientific investigation.

Tell me all about the quantum model of consciousness and the role of microtubules in the process, please. The quantum model of consciousness is a theoretical framework that suggests quantum mechanics might play a fundamental role in the emergence of consciousness. One of the most notable theories within this framework is the Orchestrated Objective Reduction (Orch-OR) theory, proposed by physicist Sir Roger Penrose and anesthesiologist Stuart Hameroff in the 1990s. This theory centers around the role of microtubules in the brain's neurons as potential sites for quantum processing, which they argue could underlie conscious experience.

Overview of the Orch-OR Theory

1. Orchestrated Objective Reduction (Orch-OR) Theory:
   The Orch-OR theory combines concepts from quantum mechanics, neuroscience, and cognitive science. It proposes that consciousness arises from quantum processes happening within the brain, specifically within the microtubules inside neurons. According to Penrose and Hameroff, classical computational theories of consciousness are insufficient to explain the subjective experience, or "qualia," of consciousness. They argue that quantum phenomena, which allow for superposition, entanglement, and non-locality, could provide a deeper explanation.
2. Microtubules and Their Proposed Role:
   Microtubules are cylindrical protein structures found within the cytoskeleton of cells, including neurons in the brain. They are made of tubulin, a protein that forms hollow, tube-like structures that provide support and shape to cells, and play a role in various cellular functions, such as cell division and transport of materials within cells.
   
   In the context of Orch-OR, Penrose and Hameroff propose that microtubules act as "quantum computers" within neurons, where quantum superpositions (states that exist in multiple configurations simultaneously) occur. They believe that quantum computations within microtubules could become "orchestrated" across the brain through a process they call Objective Reduction (OR), a mechanism that collapses these quantum states, resulting in a moment of conscious experience.
3. Objective Reduction (OR):
   Objective Reduction is a concept proposed by Penrose, which suggests that the collapse of the quantum state is a physical process intrinsic to space-time geometry itself, rather than an observation-dependent process as suggested by the Copenhagen interpretation of quantum mechanics. In other words, Penrose proposes that there is a gravitational threshold that, when reached, causes quantum superpositions to collapse spontaneously, leading to discrete events in consciousness.

Microtubules in the Quantum Model of Consciousness

• Microtubules as Quantum Processors:
  Penrose and Hameroff argue that microtubules can support quantum coherence, a state where particles like electrons or photons exist in a superposition of multiple states, enabling quantum computation. They suggest that the specific arrangement of tubulin proteins in microtubules allows them to act like "quantum bits" or qubits, which can exist in multiple states simultaneously, unlike classical bits that can only be in a state of 0 or 1.
• Quantum Coherence and Decoherence:
  For quantum processes to influence consciousness, they must maintain coherence (the state of superposition) for a significant duration without being disrupted by the environment, a phenomenon known as "decoherence." Critics argue that the warm, wet, and noisy environment of the brain is inhospitable to maintaining quantum coherence for any meaningful period. However, Hameroff and Penrose contend that microtubules are structured in such a way that they can isolate quantum states from decoherence and maintain coherence long enough to be functionally relevant.
• Entanglement and Synchronization:
  The theory also suggests that microtubules in different neurons can become entangled—meaning their quantum states are interconnected regardless of distance, a property that might allow for rapid and holistic integration of information across the brain, which could explain certain aspects of conscious experience, such as unified perception and the binding of sensory information.

Evidence and Criticism

1. Support for Orch-OR:
   Some studies have shown that microtubules exhibit quantum behavior at very low temperatures and may possess certain properties (such as conducting electrons) that are compatible with quantum processes. Moreover, experiments by researchers like Anirban Bandyopadhyay have suggested that microtubules could have resonance frequencies in the gigahertz to terahertz range, which might be relevant to quantum coherence.
2. Criticism of Orch-OR:
   The majority of the scientific community remains skeptical of the Orch-OR theory for several reasons:
   • Decoherence Problem: The main critique is the difficulty in maintaining quantum coherence in the brain's warm, wet, and noisy environment. Most physicists argue that quantum effects would rapidly decohere in such a setting.
   • Lack of Empirical Evidence: To date, there is no direct empirical evidence supporting the claim that microtubules or any other brain structures can perform quantum computations or that quantum processes are necessary for consciousness.
   • Alternative Explanations: Many neuroscientists believe that classical explanations of brain function, based on neurons and synapses, are sufficient to explain consciousness, and they see no need to invoke quantum mechanics.
   • Philosophical Concerns: Some philosophers question whether invoking quantum mechanics really adds anything meaningful to our understanding of consciousness, or if it simply shifts the "hard problem" to a different domain.

Other Quantum Models of Consciousness

• Quantum Brain Dynamics (QBD):
  Another quantum-based model of consciousness is Quantum Brain Dynamics, which suggests that quantum fields might play a role in the functioning of the brain. In this model, brain waves are thought to arise from quantum field interactions among neurons and glial cells.
• Quantum Cognition:
  This field applies quantum mechanics principles to model cognitive processes, such as decision-making, perception, and memory. It does not necessarily propose that the brain itself operates quantum mechanically but uses quantum probability theory to explain certain cognitive phenomena that seem incompatible with classical theories.

Conclusion

The quantum model of consciousness, particularly the Orch-OR theory, offers a novel perspective on the nature of consciousness, suggesting that quantum mechanics may play a role in the emergence of conscious experience. However, it remains highly speculative and controversial, with many open questions and significant challenges to overcome before it can be fully integrated into mainstream scientific thought.

Would you like to know more about specific aspects, such as the mathematics behind the theory or its philosophical implications?

And now a team of researchers at Wellesley College, Wellesley, MA, USA have provided evidence that supports the quantum explanation for consciousness that depends on quantum effects inside microtubule in neurons. It relates to the observable fact that consciousness can be abolished by anesthetic substances and builds on a theory proposed by Roger Penrose, who, while not being a neurophysiologist is a mathematician capable of handing the mathematics of quantum entanglement and decoherence.

Wellesley team’s new research on anesthesia unlocks important clues about the nature of consciousness

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For decades, one of the most fundamental and vexing questions in neuroscience has been: what is the physical basis of consciousness in the brain? Most researchers favor classical models, based on classical physics, while a minority have argued that consciousness must be quantum in nature, and that its brain basis is a collective quantum vibration of “microtubule” proteins inside neurons.

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For decades, one of the most fundamental and vexing questions in neuroscience has been: what is the physical basis of consciousness in the brain? Most researchers favor classical models, based on classical physics, while a minority have argued that consciousness must be quantum in nature, and that its brain basis is a collective quantum vibration of “microtubule” proteins inside neurons.

New research by Wellesley College professor Mike Wiest and a group of Wellesley College undergraduate students has yielded important experimental results relevant to this debate, by examining how anesthesia affects the brain. Wiest and his research team found that when they gave rats a drug that binds to microtubules, it took the rats significantly longer to fall unconscious under an anesthetic gas. The research team’s microtubule-binding drug interfered with the anesthetic action, thus supporting the idea that the anesthetic acts on microtubules to cause unconsciousness.

Since we don’t know of another (i.e. classical) way that anesthetic binding to microtubules would generally reduce brain activity and cause unconsciousness, this finding supports the quantum model of consciousness.

Professor Michael C. Wiest, senior author.
Neuroscience Department
Wellesley College, Wellesley, Massachusetts, USA.

It’s hard to overstate the significance of the classical/quantum debate about consciousness, says Wiest, an associate professor of neuroscience at Wellesley.

When it becomes accepted that the mind is a quantum phenomenon, we will have entered a new era in our understanding of what we are [the new approach] would lead to improved understanding of how anesthesia works, and it would shape our thinking about a wide variety of related questions, such as whether coma patients or non-human animals are conscious, how mysterious drugs like lithium modulate conscious experience to stabilize mood, how diseases like Alzheimer’s or schizophrenia affect perception and memory, and so on. [More broadly, a quantum understanding of consciousness] gives us a world picture in which we can be connected to the universe in a more natural and holistic way.

Professor Michael C. Wiest.

Wiest plans to pursue future research in this field, and hopes to explain and explore the quantum consciousness theory in a book for a general audience.

Wellesley students who co-authored the paper with Wiest are Sana Khan ’25, Yixiang Huang ’25, Derin Timucin ’27, Shantelle Bailey ’24, Sophia Lee ’23, Jessica Lopes ’26, Emeline Gaunce ’26, Jasmine Mosberger ’25, Michelle Zhan ’24, Bothina Abdelrahman ’26 and Xiran Zeng ’27. Published September 1 in eNeuro, the Wellesley study demonstrates that anesthesia works by binding to microtubules inside neurons, thus providing important evidence for a quantum theory of consciousness while reviving a focus on microtubules in anesthesia.

eNeuro is the Society for Neuroscience's open-access journal.

Their findings have just been published, open access, in the online journal eNeuro:

Visual Abstract

Abstract
Volatile anesthetics are currently believed to cause unconsciousness by acting on one or more molecular targets including neural ion channels, receptors, mitochondria, synaptic proteins, and cytoskeletal proteins. Anesthetic gases including isoflurane bind to cytoskeletal microtubules (MTs) and dampen their quantum optical effects, potentially contributing to causing unconsciousness. This possibility is supported by the finding that taxane chemotherapy consisting of MT-stabilizing drugs reduces the effectiveness of anesthesia during surgery in human cancer patients. In order to experimentally assess the contribution of MTs as functionally relevant targets of volatile anesthetics, we measured latencies to loss of righting reflex (LORR) under 4% isoflurane in male rats injected subcutaneously with vehicle or 0.75 mg/kg of the brain-penetrant MT–stabilizing drug epothilone B (epoB). EpoB-treated rats took an average of 69 s longer to become unconscious as measured by latency to LORR. This was a statistically significant difference corresponding to a standardized mean difference (Cohen's d) of 1.9, indicating a “large” normalized effect size. The effect could not be accounted for by tolerance from repeated exposure to isoflurane. Our results suggest that binding of the anesthetic gas isoflurane to MTs causes unconsciousness and loss of purposeful behavior in rats (and presumably humans and other animals). This finding is predicted by models that posit consciousness as a property of a quantum physical state of neural MTs.

Significance Statement
Our study establishes that action on intracellular microtubules (MTs) is the mechanism, or one of the mechanisms, by which the inhalational anesthetic gas isoflurane induces unconsciousness in rats. This finding has potential clinical implications for understanding how taxane chemotherapy interferes with anesthesia in humans and more broadly for avoiding anesthesia failures during surgery. Our results are also theoretically important because they provide support for MT-based theories of anesthetic action and consciousness.

Introduction
Volatile anesthetics reversibly abolish consciousness or motility in animals, plants, and single-celled organisms (Kelz and Mashour, 2019; Yokawa et al., 2019.1). For humans, they are a medical miracle that we have been benefiting from for over 150 years, but the precise molecular mechanisms by which these molecules reversibly abolish consciousness remain elusive (Eger et al., 2008; Hemmings et al., 2019.2; Kelz and Mashour, 2019; Mashour, 2024). The functionally relevant molecular targets for causing unconsciousness are believed to be one or a combination of neural ion channels, receptors, mitochondria, synaptic proteins, and cytoskeletal proteins.

The Meyer–Overton correlation refers to the venerable finding that the anesthetic potency of chemically diverse anesthetic molecules is directly correlated with their solubility in lipids akin to olive oil (S. R. Hameroff, 2018; Kelz and Mashour, 2019). The possibility that general anesthesia might be explained by unitary action of all (or most) anesthetics on one target protein is supported by the Meyer–Overton correlation and the additivity of potencies of different anesthetics (Eger et al., 2008). Together these results suggest that anesthetics may act on a unitary site, via relatively nonspecific physical interactions (such as London/van der Waals forces between induced dipoles).

Cytoskeletal microtubules (MTs) have been considered as a candidate target of anesthetic action for over 50 years (Allison and Nunn, 1968; S. Hameroff, 1998). Other membrane receptor and ion channel proteins were ruled out as possible unitary targets by exhaustive studies culminating in Eger et al. (2008). However, MTs (composed of tubulin subunits) were not ruled out and remain a candidate for a unitary site of anesthetic action. MTs are the major components of the cytoskeleton in all cells, and they also play an essential role in cell reproduction—and aberrant cell reproduction in cancer—but in neurons, they have additional specialized roles in intracellular transport and neural plasticity (Kapitein and Hoogenraad, 2015). MTs have also been proposed to process information, encode memory, and mediate consciousness (S. R. Hameroff et al., 1982; S. Hameroff and Penrose, 1996; S. Hameroff, 2022). While classical models predict no direct role of MTs in neuronal membrane and synaptic signaling, Singh et al. (2021a) showed that MT activities do regulate axonal firing, for example, overriding membrane potentials. The orchestrated objective reduction (Orch OR) theory proposes that anesthesia directly blocks quantum effects in MTs necessary for consciousness (S. Hameroff and Penrose, 2014). Consistent with this hypothesis, volatile anesthetics do bind to cytoskeletal MTs (Pan et al., 2008.1) and dampen their quantum optical effects (Kalra et al., 2023), potentially contributing to causing unconsciousness.

This hypothesis is further supported by observations of resistance to anesthesia in human recipients of taxane chemotherapy. The taxanes are a class of MT-stabilizing drugs used to treat multiple forms of cancer (Varidaki et al., 2018.1). Recipients of taxane chemotherapy had a significantly elevated blood pressure response to incision during surgery for breast cancer and required significantly more opioid analgesic, as compared with patients who did not receive taxane chemotherapy (Linganna et al., 2015.1). This result suggests that binding to MTs contributes to inducing unconsciousness under volatile anesthetics, but on the other hand, there was no significant change in the heart rate or anesthetic delivery during surgery in the taxane group as compared with controls. Similarly, the variety of pathological profiles among patients, the variety of anesthetics and other drugs used, and the variety of taxane therapies used in that study make it difficult to draw firm or specific conclusions.

In order to quantitatively assess the functional relevance of MTs as one of the anesthetic targets contributing to loss of consciousness, we administered the MT-stabilizing drug epothilone B (epoB) to a group of rats and compared their times to fall unconscious under isoflurane anesthesia before and after epoB treatment.

Just for the sake of completeness and because creationists like to pretend they understand these concepts well enough to find faul with them, here is ChatGPT40's explantion of the mathematics behind the theory:

The mathematics behind the Orch-OR theory might be useful. The mathematics behind the Orchestrated Objective Reduction (Orch-OR) theory primarily involves concepts from quantum mechanics, general relativity, and quantum gravity. It centers on the idea that quantum superpositions in microtubules collapse according to a gravitational threshold proposed by Sir Roger Penrose. Let’s dive into the mathematical framework that underpins this theory.

Key Mathematical Concepts in Orch-OR

1. Quantum Superposition and the Wave Function In quantum mechanics, a system is described by a wave function, \(\psi(x,t)\), which represents the state of a system and encodes the probabilities of all possible outcomes. For example, if the system is in a superposition of states \(|0\rangle\) and \(|1\rangle\), the wave function can be written as: \[ \psi = \alpha |0\rangle + \beta |1\rangle, \] where \(\alpha\) and \(\beta\) are complex numbers, and \(|\alpha|^2\) and \(|\beta|^2\) represent the probabilities of finding the system in state \(|0\rangle\) or \(|1\rangle\), respectively.
2. Objective Reduction (OR) and Gravitational Threshold
   
   Penrose's idea of Objective Reduction (OR) suggests that quantum superpositions are unstable and will collapse when they reach a certain level of gravitational self-energy. This collapse is proposed to be a non-computable process related to the fundamental nature of space-time.
   
   The collapse time, \(\tau\), for a given quantum superposition is given by: \[ \tau \approx \frac{\hbar}{E_G}, \] where: - \(\hbar\) is the reduced Planck's constant, - \(E_G\) is the gravitational self-energy of the difference between the mass distributions of the two superposed states. The gravitational self-energy \(E_G\) is calculated based on the degree of separation in space-time geometry caused by the mass distribution difference in the superposed states. Penrose suggests that this gravitational energy creates an instability in space-time, leading to the collapse of the quantum state.
   
   
3. Gravitational Self-Energy (\(E_G\))
   
   The gravitational self-energy \(E_G\) is a measure of the energy required to maintain the superposition of two different mass distributions in space-time. It can be approximated as:
   
   \[ E_G \sim G \int \int \frac{\left( \rho_1(\mathbf{r}) - \rho_2(\mathbf{r'}) \right) \left( \rho_1(\mathbf{r'}) - \rho_2(\mathbf{r'}) \right)}{|\mathbf{r} - \mathbf{r'}|} \, d^3r \, d^3r', \]
   
   where: - \(G\) is the gravitational constant, - \(\rho_1(\mathbf{r})\) and \(\rho_2(\mathbf{r})\) are the mass density distributions of the two superposed states at positions \(\mathbf{r}\) and \(\mathbf{r'}\).
   
   The integral evaluates the gravitational interaction energy between the mass distributions associated with each of the superposed states. The difference between these distributions causes a deformation in space-time, which becomes unstable at a certain point, leading to collapse.
   
   
4. Quantum Coherence Time
   
   The coherence time, or the duration over which a quantum superposition is maintained, is critical for quantum computation. In the context of Orch-OR, this coherence time (\(\tau\)) is thought to be related to conscious moments. For a human brain, Penrose and Hameroff estimate the collapse time to be on the order of milliseconds, which they argue corresponds to the typical time scale of conscious experience.
   
   The relationship between the gravitational energy and the collapse time gives an estimated coherence time for tubulin states within microtubules. Tubulins in microtubules are proposed to act as qubits (quantum bits) that maintain coherent superpositions until an OR event occurs, resulting in a conscious experience.
   
   
5. Quantum Computation in Microtubules
   
   In the Orch-OR theory, tubulin proteins in microtubules are thought to exist in quantum superposition states. The specific superposition states of the tubulin dimers can be mathematically represented as:
   \[ |\text{Tubulin State}\rangle = c_1 |0\rangle + c_2 |1\rangle, \] where: - \(|0\rangle\) and \(|1\rangle\) represent two possible states of a tubulin dimer (e.g., different conformations or positions of the electrons in the tubulin molecule), - \(c_1\) and \(c_2\) are complex probability amplitudes.
   Microtubules are composed of many tubulin dimers, and their collective states could potentially form a large-scale quantum coherent system that performs quantum computations.
   
   
6. Quantum Entanglement and Non-Locality
   
   Quantum entanglement is a phenomenon where particles become correlated in ways that their individual quantum states cannot be described independently. In the Orch-OR model, it is proposed that microtubules in different neurons could become entangled, allowing for instantaneous communication across the brain.
   
   The entangled state of multiple microtubules can be mathematically expressed as:
   \[ |\Psi\rangle = \frac{1}{\sqrt{2}} \left( |0\rangle_A |1\rangle_B + |1\rangle_A |0\rangle_B \right), \] where: - \(|0\rangle_A\) and \(|1\rangle_A\) are the states of one microtubule (A), - \(|0\rangle_B\) and \(|1\rangle_B\) are the states of another microtubule (B). This entangled state would imply that a change in the state of microtubule A immediately affects the state of microtubule B, even if they are far apart.
   

Summary of the Mathematics

1. Collapse Time (\(\tau\)): \[ \tau \approx \frac{\hbar}{E_G} \] where \(\tau\) is the time for the collapse of the quantum state, \(\hbar\) is the reduced Planck's constant, and \(E_G\) is the gravitational self-energy.
2. Gravitational Self-Energy (E_G): \[ E_G \sim G \int \int \frac{\left( \rho_1(\mathbf{r}) - \rho_2(\mathbf{r'}) \right) \left( \rho_1(\mathbf{r'}) - \rho_2(\mathbf{r'}) \right)}{|\mathbf{r} - \mathbf{r'}|} \, d^3r \, d^3r'. \]
3. Quantum States of Tubulin: \[ |\text{Tubulin State}\rangle = c_1 |0\rangle + c_2 |1\rangle. \]
4. Entangled Microtubules: \[ |\Psi\rangle = \frac{1}{\sqrt{2}} \left( |0\rangle_A |1\rangle_B + |1\rangle_A |0\rangle_B \right). \]

Implications of the Mathematics

The mathematical framework of Orch-OR suggests that conscious moments arise from the collapse of quantum states due to gravitational effects at a specific threshold. It incorporates ideas from quantum gravity, quantum mechanics, and neuroscience to argue that microtubules in neurons may act as sites for quantum computation, which, upon collapse, result in moments of conscious awareness. However, these concepts remain highly theoretical, and significant empirical evidence is still required to validate them.

Would you like a deeper dive into any particular aspect of the mathematics, or do you have specific questions related to the equations or their implications?

And for those who need a glossary of the terms used:

A glossary would be helpful, please. Here is a glossary of key terms related to the quantum model of consciousness and the role of microtubules in this process:

Glossary

• Consciousness: The state of being aware of and able to think, feel, perceive, and experience one's own existence and surroundings. It includes aspects like self-awareness, sensory experience, thought processes, and emotions.
• Orchestrated Objective Reduction (Orch-OR) Theory: A theory proposed by Sir Roger Penrose and Stuart Hameroff that suggests consciousness arises from quantum computations occurring in microtubules within brain neurons. According to the theory, these quantum states are "orchestrated" by neuronal processes and collapse via objective reduction, leading to moments of conscious awareness.
• Microtubules: Cylindrical protein structures within cells, particularly neurons, made up of tubulin. In the Orch-OR theory, microtubules are proposed to function as quantum processors where quantum computations necessary for consciousness could occur.
• Quantum Mechanics: A fundamental theory in physics that describes the behavior of particles at the atomic and subatomic levels. It includes principles such as superposition, entanglement, and wave-particle duality, which are used in quantum models of consciousness to explain the emergence of conscious experience.
• Quantum Superposition: A principle in quantum mechanics where a particle exists in multiple states or locations simultaneously until it is observed or measured. In the context of consciousness, it is proposed that states of consciousness may involve superpositions that collapse into specific experiences.
• Quantum Entanglement: A phenomenon in which the quantum states of two or more particles become interconnected in such a way that the state of one particle instantly affects the state of the other, regardless of the distance separating them. In the Orch-OR theory, entanglement might allow for rapid communication and integration across different parts of the brain.
• Objective Reduction (OR): A concept proposed by Roger Penrose suggesting that the collapse of a quantum superposition into a definite state is not due to measurement or observation but is an objective physical process governed by the fundamental fabric of space-time. This collapse is thought to correspond to a moment of conscious awareness.
• Quantum Coherence: A state in which particles, such as electrons or photons, are in a superposition and maintain a fixed relationship in terms of phase and quantum state. Coherence is crucial for quantum computing and, in the Orch-OR theory, is considered necessary for the quantum processing thought to underlie consciousness.
• Decoherence: The process by which a quantum system loses its quantum properties, like superposition and entanglement, due to interactions with its environment. In the context of quantum consciousness theories, decoherence is a major challenge, as the brain’s warm, noisy environment is thought to cause rapid decoherence.
• Quantum Bit (Qubit): The basic unit of quantum information in quantum computing, analogous to a classical bit but capable of being in a state of 0, 1, or both (superposition) simultaneously. In the Orch-OR theory, tubulin proteins within microtubules are thought to function like qubits.
• Quantum Brain Dynamics (QBD): A theoretical approach that suggests brain activity might involve quantum field interactions, leading to macroscopic quantum states that contribute to consciousness. This model proposes that brain waves and other neural phenomena could be related to quantum effects.
• Quantum Cognition: A field that uses mathematical principles from quantum mechanics to model cognitive processes, such as decision-making and perception. Unlike Orch-OR, quantum cognition does not claim that the brain itself operates quantum mechanically; rather, it uses quantum probability theory to explain behaviors that appear paradoxical under classical models.
• Qualia: The subjective, qualitative aspects of conscious experience, such as the redness of red or the taste of chocolate. These are the "raw feels" or intrinsic qualities of perception that are central to the philosophical study of consciousness.
• Tubulin: A globular protein that polymerizes to form microtubules. In the Orch-OR theory, tubulin molecules are proposed to be capable of existing in quantum superposition states and acting like qubits for quantum computation within the brain.
• Wave Function: A mathematical function that describes the quantum state of a system, containing information about all possible states of the system. The wave function is central to quantum mechanics, and its "collapse" is a key event in quantum theories of consciousness.
• Copenhagen Interpretation: A traditional interpretation of quantum mechanics which suggests that quantum systems do not have definite properties until they are measured, at which point their wave function collapses to a single outcome. This contrasts with Penrose's Objective Reduction (OR), which posits that collapse occurs independently of observation.
• Gravitational Threshold: In the context of the Orch-OR theory, a proposed point at which the mass-energy of a quantum superposition reaches a level where it spontaneously collapses due to quantum gravity effects. This is suggested to correspond to moments of conscious experience.
• Neurobiology: The branch of biology that studies the nervous system, including its structure, function, and development. In quantum theories of consciousness, neurobiology provides the structural basis (such as microtubules in neurons) where quantum processes are proposed to occur.
• Binding Problem: The question of how disparate sensory inputs (like sight, sound, and touch) are integrated into a unified, coherent perception in the brain. Quantum models, such as Orch-OR, propose that quantum entanglement or coherence might help solve this problem by synchronizing different parts of the brain.

Would you like any additional terms explained or more information on any of these?

Like every other gap in which creationists try to sit their ever-shrinking little god, it's looking like this 'consciousness' gap is being closed by science and, as usual, no god is anywhere to be found. But, on the other hand, it's looking like a quantum explanation could be a fertile field for creationist frauds to feign ignorant incredulity and for their dupes to follow suit, being happy to pretend that they have a better, simpler answer.

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