Fine-Tuned Fallacy Exposed - How Earth's Ecosystems Caused Multiple Mass Extinctions Between 185 And 85 Million Years Before 'Creation Week'

Fossils of Crinoids that were probably killed in an Oceanic Anoxic Event

Credit: Professor Tom Gernon

Land-sea tag-team devastated ocean life millions of years ago reveal scientists | University of Southampton

It can only be by remaining wilfully ignorant of the history of life on Earth and how it has been affected by catastrohic changes, that creationists are able to maintain the childish delusion that Earth is somehow fine-tuned for life, and especially their life.

The fact that very much of the surface of Earth, such as oceans, deserts and high mountain ranges is lethal without special equipment, and without cloths, shelter and fire , most of the northern and southern latitudes are not survivable in an average winter should be a clue to the fallacy of the claim, but then, from the safety of small town, Bible Belt America, where the rest of the world might as well not exist, such places can be safely ignored.

But the fact remains, whether ignored or not, that there have been several periods in the history of life on Earth that the planet has become a very hostile place, resulting in mass extinctions wheree life looked as though someone had hit the reset button. The primary cause of these fluctuations is almost certinly plate techtonics which, through mid-ocean ridge activity, release sulphates and phosphates which produce blooms of plankton which then die, locking up carbon and producing anoxic sediments on the ocean bed, and by releasing CO₂ into the atmosphere where if causes a rise in ocean temperature.

Volcanic activity also produces basalt which, when eroded and washed into the sea adds to the phosphates which produce planktonic blooms and subsequent deoxygenation.

How these terrestrial and marine sources act together to produce the frequent OAEs has now been explained.

Tell me about the oceanic deoxygenation events between 85 and 185 million years ago, please. Oceanic deoxygenation events between 85 and 185 million years ago, often referred to as Oceanic Anoxic Events (OAEs), were periods in Earth's history when parts of the oceans experienced significantly reduced levels of oxygen, leading to widespread anoxia (absence of oxygen) in marine environments. These events are of great interest to scientists because they were associated with major environmental changes, disruptions to marine life, and substantial geological and climatic shifts.

Here is a summary of the key Oceanic Anoxic Events during this period:

1. Oceanic Anoxic Event 1 (OAE 1): Early Cretaceous (around 120-110 million years ago)
   • Timing: Occurred during the Early Cretaceous period, approximately 120 to 110 million years ago.
   • Sub-Events: OAE 1 is often subdivided into several smaller events (OAE 1a, 1b, 1c, 1d) based on specific episodes of deoxygenation.
     • OAE 1a (Selli Event): Occurred around 120 million years ago, the most prominent of the OAE 1 events.
     • OAE 1b (Paquier Event): Occurred around 111 million years ago.
     • OAE 1c and 1d: Occurred around 109 and 107 million years ago, respectively.
   • Causes: Likely driven by increased volcanic activity, particularly in large igneous provinces such as the Ontong Java Plateau. This activity released significant amounts of carbon dioxide (CO₂) into the atmosphere, leading to global warming, enhanced weathering of continents, and nutrient runoff into the oceans.
   • Consequences:
     • Enhanced productivity of marine phytoplankton due to nutrient influx, leading to increased organic matter in the oceans.
     • Oxygen consumption exceeded supply, causing widespread marine anoxia, particularly in deeper ocean basins.
     • Deposition of organic-rich black shales in marine sediments, which are now important hydrocarbon (oil and gas) source rocks.
     • Mass extinctions of marine life, especially among plankton and benthic (seafloor-dwelling) organisms.
   
   
2. Oceanic Anoxic Event 2 (OAE 2): Cenomanian-Turonian Boundary (around 94 million years ago)
   • Timing: Occurred during the transition from the Cenomanian to the Turonian stages of the Late Cretaceous, approximately 94 million years ago.
   • Causes: Similar to OAE 1, OAE 2 is believed to have been triggered by large-scale volcanic activity, including the emplacement of the Caribbean Large Igneous Province and the High Arctic Large Igneous Province. This activity released massive amounts of CO₂ and other greenhouse gases.
   • Consequences:
     • A rapid rise in global temperatures, increased evaporation rates, and altered ocean circulation patterns.
     • Increased organic productivity in the surface ocean, leading to greater organic carbon burial and severe oxygen depletion at various depths.
     • Significant extinction events among marine species, including ammonites, certain plankton groups, and benthic organisms.
     • Deposition of extensive organic-rich black shales, with evidence of euxinia (anoxic conditions with hydrogen sulfide presence) in some regions.
   
   
3. Early Jurassic Anoxic Events (around 183 million years ago)
   • Timing: Occurred during the Early Jurassic period, around 183 million years ago.
   • Major Event: Often referred to as the Toarcian Oceanic Anoxic Event (T-OAE).
   • Causes: Thought to be associated with the eruption of the Karoo-Ferrar Large Igneous Province, which released significant quantities of CO₂, causing rapid global warming, enhanced weathering, and increased nutrient delivery to the oceans.
   • Consequences:
     • A marked increase in organic carbon burial and deposition of black shales in marine sediments.
     • A decline in marine biodiversity, with a noticeable extinction event affecting marine plankton, ammonites, and other marine invertebrates.
     • Evidence of shifts in ocean circulation and widespread euxinic conditions in certain regions of the oceans.

Common Features and Implications of These Events:

• Geochemical Evidence: OAEs are identified in the geologic record by distinct carbon isotope excursions (anomalies in carbon isotope ratios) and the presence of black shales with high organic carbon content.
• Link to Climate Change: These events are closely linked to periods of rapid climate change, driven by volcanic activity and the release of greenhouse gases.
• Impact on Marine Life: OAEs led to significant restructuring of marine ecosystems, including mass extinctions and subsequent evolutionary radiations.
• Carbon Cycling: The burial of large amounts of organic carbon during these events had long-term impacts on Earth's carbon cycle, potentially helping to stabilize the climate by removing CO₂ from the atmosphere.

Significance in Earth’s History:

These oceanic deoxygenation events are critical for understanding past climate change, the carbon cycle, and their impacts on marine ecosystems. They provide valuable insights into how rapid environmental changes can affect life on Earth and offer analogs for understanding modern deoxygenation trends in today’s oceans due to human-induced climate change.

Would you like more details on any specific event or aspect?

What were the consequences for life on Earth of these events?

The Oceanic Anoxic Events (OAEs) between 85 and 185 million years ago had profound consequences for life on Earth, particularly for marine ecosystems. These events led to widespread extinction and ecological shifts, affecting both marine and terrestrial life in various ways. Here’s a detailed look at the key consequences:

1. Mass Extinctions and Biodiversity Loss
   • Marine Life Impact:
     • Plankton: Planktonic organisms, such as foraminifera and calcareous nannoplankton (like coccolithophores), experienced significant declines and even extinctions. Plankton are crucial for marine food webs, so their reduction affected higher trophic levels, including fish and other marine predators.
     • Ammonites and Belemnites: These cephalopods, which were once highly diverse and abundant, suffered major losses during OAEs. For example, OAE 2 led to the extinction of many ammonite species, and subsequent evolutionary turnovers greatly altered their diversity.
     • Benthic Organisms: Benthic (seafloor-dwelling) organisms like bivalves, echinoderms, and some types of brachiopods were heavily impacted due to oxygen-depleted conditions in the ocean's bottom waters. Anoxic and euxinic conditions (anoxia with hydrogen sulfide) were particularly detrimental, causing significant reductions in benthic biodiversity.
     • Marine Reptiles: The decline in available prey and changing oceanic conditions also affected marine reptiles such as ichthyosaurs and plesiosaurs, contributing to their eventual extinction in some cases.
   • Terrestrial Life Impact:
     • Although OAEs primarily affected marine environments, there were indirect effects on terrestrial ecosystems due to global climate changes, such as higher temperatures, changes in precipitation patterns, and altered plant communities. These changes would have affected terrestrial food webs, water availability, and habitat distribution.
   
   
2. Evolutionary Turnovers and Radiations
   • Evolutionary Bottlenecks: The mass extinctions and reductions in population sizes during OAEs created evolutionary bottlenecks. Many species were driven to extinction, but survivors often adapted to the new environmental conditions, leading to rapid evolutionary diversification once the conditions stabilized.
   • Rise of New Species: Following the extinction events, there were periods of adaptive radiation where new species evolved to fill the ecological niches left vacant by the extinct organisms. For example, after OAE 2, new types of plankton and marine predators emerged, leading to a restructuring of marine ecosystems.
   • Specialized Adaptations: Some species developed unique adaptations to survive in low-oxygen environments, such as changes in metabolic rates, size reduction, or developing symbiotic relationships with microbes that could survive in anoxic conditions.
   
   
3. Changes in Ocean Chemistry and Carbon Cycling
   • Organic Carbon Burial: The extensive burial of organic carbon during these anoxic events had a significant impact on Earth's long-term carbon cycle. The sequestration of carbon reduced atmospheric CO₂ levels over time, potentially contributing to cooling periods that followed these events.
   • Marine Productivity Shifts: Enhanced nutrient availability from volcanic activity, increased weathering, and continental runoff initially led to high primary productivity. However, as the anoxia persisted, it caused widespread die-offs of many organisms, particularly those that could not tolerate low oxygen levels.
   • Euxinic Conditions and Toxicity: In some regions, anoxia progressed to euxinia, where not only oxygen was depleted, but toxic hydrogen sulfide built up in the water column. This condition is deadly to most aerobic life and contributed to additional extinction pressures. Euxinic waters could release hydrogen sulfide gas into the atmosphere, potentially impacting terrestrial life as well.
   
   
4. Reorganization of Marine Ecosystems
   • Shift in Dominant Species: The events caused a significant restructuring of marine food webs. Species that could tolerate low oxygen or even thrive in anoxic environments became more dominant. For example, green sulfur bacteria (photosynthetic bacteria that do not produce oxygen) flourished in euxinic conditions, creating microbial mats in shallow waters.
   • Collapse of Coral Reefs: Coral reefs, which rely on clear, oxygenated waters, faced significant stress during these events. The collapse or severe reduction of reef ecosystems would have impacted numerous species that relied on these habitats for food, shelter, and breeding grounds.
   
   
5. Impacts on Climate and Atmospheric Composition
   • Global Warming and Cooling Phases: These OAEs were associated with rapid global warming due to increased CO₂ levels from volcanic eruptions. However, the subsequent drawdown of CO₂ due to enhanced organic carbon burial could have led to global cooling phases. This back-and-forth contributed to climatic instability during these periods.
   • Increased Methane Production: Anoxic conditions in the oceans could have led to increased methane production from microbial activity. Methane is a potent greenhouse gas, which could have further amplified warming during these periods.
   
   
6. Long-Term Evolutionary Impact and Recovery
   • Gradual Ecosystem Recovery: Following the end of these anoxic events, marine and terrestrial ecosystems underwent gradual recovery. It took millions of years for full recovery in some cases, with the development of new, more resilient species and ecosystems.
   • Resilience and Adaptation: The selective pressures of OAEs led to the evolution of more resilient life forms that could better adapt to fluctuating environmental conditions. This period saw the rise of new species and the establishment of modern marine and terrestrial ecosystems.

Overall Significance for Life on Earth:

The OAEs between 85 and 185 million years ago were pivotal moments in Earth’s history, shaping the course of evolution and the development of modern ecosystems. These events highlight how environmental changes, whether due to natural processes like volcanic activity or human-induced factors, can have profound and lasting impacts on biodiversity and planetary health. Understanding OAEs also provides valuable insights into current trends of ocean deoxygenation and climate change, as modern oceans are beginning to show similar patterns of oxygen loss due to human activities.

Would you like to know more about how these events are studied or their relevance to modern environmental concerns?

A succession of these events occurred over a period of about 100 million years ending about 85 million years ago, when changes in the atmosphere resulted in the oceans losing the oxygen on which most sea life is dependent. How these events occurred is the subject of an open access research paper in Nature Geoscience by an international team led by Professor Tom Gernon, a Professor of Earth Science at Southampton University, Hampshire, UK.

Their research is the subject of a Southampton University press release:

Land-sea “tag-team” devastated ocean life millions of years ago reveal scientists

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Scientists have revealed how a “tag-team” between the oceans and continents millions of years ago devastated marine life – and altered the course of evolution on Earth.

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Their study has unearthed a new explanation for a string of severe environmental crises, called oceanic anoxic events, which happened between 185 and 85 million years ago.

These occurred when the seas became critically depleted of dissolved oxygen.

Experts from the University of Southampton, which led the study, said these events triggered significant biological upheavals, including mass extinctions of marine species.

The findings are published in Nature Geoscience.

Oceanic anoxic events were like hitting the reset button on the planet’s ecosystems. The challenge was understanding which geological forces hit the button.

Professor Tom M. Gernon, lead author
Professor of Earth Science
School of Ocean and Earth Science
University of Southampton, Southampton, UK.

The study was undertaken by Southampton in collaboration with academics from the universities of Leeds, Bristol in the UK, Adelaide in Australia, Utrecht in the Netherlands, Waterloo in Canada, and Yale in the US.

The researchers examined the impact of plate tectonic forces on ocean chemistry during the Jurassic and Cretaceous Periods, collectively known as the Mesozoic era.

This chapter of Earth’s history is often dubbed the age of the dinosaurs, said Prof Gernon, and is famously exposed along the Jurassic Coast on the UK’s south coast as well as along the cliffs of Whitby in Yorkshire and Eastbourne in East Sussex.

The team combined statistical analyses and sophisticated computer models to explore how chemical cycles in the ocean could have feasibly responded to the breakup of the supercontinent Gondwana, the great landmass once roamed by the dinosaurs.

The Mesozoic era witnessed the breakup of this landmass, in turn bringing intense volcanic activity worldwide. As tectonic plates shifted and new seafloors formed, large amounts of phosphorus, a nutrient essential for life, were released from weathering volcanic rocks into the oceans. Crucially, we found evidence of multiple pulses of chemical weathering on both the seafloor and continents, which alternately disrupted the oceans. It’s like a geological tag-team

Professor Tom M. Gernon.

Experts from the universities found the timing of these weathering pulses matched up with most oceanic anoxic events in the rock record.

They propose that the weathering-related influx of phosphorus to the ocean acted like a natural fertiliser, boosting the growth of marine organisms.

However, the researchers said these fertilisation episodes came at a major cost for marine ecosystems.

The increase in biological activity led to huge amounts of organic matter sinking to the ocean floor, where it consumed large quantities of oxygen, said co-author Benjamin Mills, a Professor of Earth System Evolution at the University of Leeds.

This process eventually caused swathes of the oceans to become anoxic, or oxygen-depleted, creating ‘dead zones’ where most marine life perished. The anoxic events typically lasted around one to two million years and had profound impacts on marine ecosystems, the legacy of which are even felt today. The rocks rich in organic matter that accumulated during these events are by far the largest source of commercial oil and gas reserves globally.

Professor Benjamin J. W. Mills, co-author Professor of Earth System Evolution
School of Earth and Environment
University of Leeds, Leeds, UK.

As well as explaining the cause of extreme biological turmoil in the Mesozoic, the study’s findings highlight the devastating effects that nutrient overloading can have on marine environments today.

The team of researchers explained how present-day human activities have reduced mean oceanic oxygen levels by about two per cent - leading to a significant expanse in anoxic water masses.

Overall, the team’s findings reveal a stronger-than-expected connection between the Earth’s solid interior and its surface environment and biosphere, especially during periods of tectonic and climatic upheaval.

Studying geological events offers valuable insights that can help us grasp how the Earth may respond to future climatic and environmental stresses. It’s remarkable how a chain of events within the Earth can impact the surface, often with devastating effects. Tearing continents apart can have profound repercussions for the course of evolution.

Professor Tom M. Gernon.

Read more about the study in Nature Geoscience at https://doi.org/10.1038/s41561-024-01496-0 .

Abstract
Oceanic anoxic events are geologically abrupt phases of extreme oxygen depletion in the oceans that disrupted marine ecosystems and brought about evolutionary turnover. Typically lasting ~1.5 million years, these events occurred frequently during the Mesozoic era, from about 183 to 85 million years ago, an interval associated with continental breakup and widespread large igneous province volcanism. One hypothesis suggests that anoxic events resulted from enhanced chemical weathering of Earth’s surface in a greenhouse world shaped by high volcanic carbon outgassing. Here we test this hypothesis using a combination of plate reconstructions, tectonic–geochemical analysis and global biogeochemical modelling. We show that enhanced weathering of mafic lithologies during continental breakup and nascent seafloor spreading can plausibly drive a succession of anoxic events. Weathering pulses collectively gave rise to substantial releases of the nutrient phosphorus to the oceans, stimulating biological primary production. This, in turn, enhanced organic carbon burial and caused widespread ocean deoxygenation on a scale sufficient to drive recurrent anoxia. This model complements volcanic outgassing-centred hypotheses for triggering these events by demonstrating well-quantified basaltic sources of phosphorus release during periods of intense weathering related to climate warmth. Our study highlights a close coupling between the solid Earth and biosphere during continental reorganization.

Main
Oceanic anoxic events (OAEs) are transient perturbations to the global carbon cycle, during which large regions of the oceans are depleted in dissolved oxygen^1,2. The resulting euxinic (anoxic and sulfidic) waters are highly toxic, leading to biological turnover events and, in extreme cases, mass extinctions of marine biota². For example, the Toarcian OAE (T-OAE) involved an ~70% reduction in the diversity of some benthic fauna³. It is widely accepted that OAEs are ultimately linked to global warming², which intensifies the hydrological cycle⁴ and chemical weathering on the continents^5,6. These conditions lead to increased primary production and organic matter burial in the oceans⁷, documented in the geological record as organic-rich black shales1 (Fig. 1). These processes, in turn, cause a substantial reduction in deep-water O₂ concentration ([O₂]).

Fig. 1: Global distribution of OAE sedimentary deposits and plate boundary features.

a,b, Plate-tectonic reconstructions (Methods) showing the main palaeogeographic features, MORs and exposed large igneous provinces, as well as the approximate distribution of OAE-related sequences in the Toarcian OAE at about 183–182 Ma (with OAE sites from ref. ⁴⁹ and references therein) (a) and Turonian at about 90 Ma (with OAE sites from ref. ⁵⁰ and references therein) (b). Note that shallow seas include epicontinental seaways, including the Western Interior Seaway of North America. CIE, carbon isotope excursion; HALIP, High Arctic Large Igneous Province. Figure created with GPlates²⁶ (https://www.gplates.org/).

Other Phanerozoic OAEs include the Steptoean Positive Carbon Isotope Excursion, the Hirnantian OAE, the Frasnian–Famennian and the Permian/Triassic boundary event4. However, the Mesozoic brought multiple OAEs in close succession (Figs. 1 and 2), with a mean duration of 1.4 Myr and a recurrence interval of ~7 Myr (Extended Data Table 1). Earth system models implicate a role for continental configuration in promoting deoxygenation of Mesozoic ocean shelves8. However, the interconnected nature of coeval environmental processes, including carbon outgassing from volcanogenic and/or methanogenic sources, global warming, increases in thermohaline circulation and changes in nutrient cycling, leaves the first-order drivers of OAEs open to debate.

Fig. 2: Tectonic, magmatic and oceanic chemical changes during the Mesozoic.

a, Seafloor production rates (from ref. ⁶) and total length of MORs and transform faults⁵¹, and major phases of ocean basin formation (onset labelled). OAEs are shown as horizontal beige bands (note that the Kimmeridge is not strictly an OAE, and the dashed line for the Late-Hauterivian Faraoni OAE (F-OAE) is from ref. ⁵²); b, LIPs (those with areas of >200 × 103 km2)¹¹; also shown is the revised age range for the Ontong–Java Plateau⁵³; c, δ¹³Corganic from organic-rich sediments⁵⁴. d, δ¹³Ccarb (inorganic carbon) from marine carbonates⁵⁵. e, The ¹⁸⁷Os/¹⁸⁰Osi signatures of sediments (data sources provided in Extended Data Table 2). f, Seawater ⁸⁷Sr/⁸⁶Sr ratios from marine carbonates⁵⁶; these ratios gradually increased during the Mesozoic era in step with Gondwana fragmentation (see h). g, Continental fragmentation index calculated using continental perimeter/area from plate reconstructions⁵⁷ (greater values signify a higher degree of fragmentation, and vice versa). h, Simplified plate reconstructions showing Gondwana breakup (orthographic projection) on the basis of the Ocean Drilling Stratigraphic Network magnetic reference frame (https://www.odsn.de/). Afr–Antarc, Africa–Antarctica; Afr–Mad, Africa–Madagascar; Aus–Mol, Australia–Molucca.

OAEs and large igneous provinces
OAE initiation has been attributed to intensified carbon dioxide (CO₂) emissions from large igneous provinces (LIPs)^9,10 (Fig. 1), many of which coincide with known anoxic events (Fig. 2b). Uncertainties in LIP ages, typically ±1 Myr (similar to mean OAE duration), and intervals of activity up to 40 Myr (Fig. 2b)¹¹ pose challenges for establishing conclusive linkages. A compounding factor is that LIPs are typically associated with continental rifted margins where other geological processes co-occur¹². There is no doubt, however, that the high frequency of LIPs (Fig. 2b) contributed to the prolonged greenhouse conditions of the late Mesozoic era that promoted intense chemical weathering. The question is whether LIP emplacement initiates an instantaneous weathering response. Global chemical weathering intensity over the past 400 Myr is only weakly correlated with both the total eruptive area and LIP area within the tropics⁶, implicating other factors. However, the influence of LIPs peaks 35–50 Myr after emplacement⁶, perhaps indicating a delayed weathering response associated with passive margin rejuvenation¹³.

The Mesozoic era brought substantial changes in global ocean chemistry, including several carbon isotope excursions (Fig. 2c–f). These changes do not provide an unambiguous record of the relative magnitude of weathering inputs as geochemical proxies record contributions from multiple, simultaneous geological processes6. For example, the gradual increase in seawater ⁸⁷Sr/⁸⁶Sr (Fig. 2f) reflects increased weathering related to arc volcanism as well as continental breakup6 (Fig. 2h). Further, the long oceanic residence time of Sr (~5 Myr) limits its utility in identifying OAE drivers. While ¹⁸⁷Os/¹⁸⁰Osinitial (Osi) signatures offer more promise, a substantial osmium input from continental weathering sources could plausibly mask a volcanic signal (and vice versa), even if volcanism was the first-order driver of global anoxia.

Global tectonic reorganization of the Mesozoic
We propose that processes associated with continental breakup plausibly drove many Mesozoic OAEs (Fig. 2f). Breakup and mid-ocean-ridge assembly reached peak intensity during the major interval of OAEs (Fig. 2a,g,h). The ‘rift-to-drift’ transition and associated uplift of continental margins generates extensive volcanic terrains, which, in turn, lead to increased weathering of mafic lithologies. Volcanic rocks such as basalts are enriched in phosphorus (P)^14,15, a biolimiting nutrient that regulates burial of organic matter over geological timescales¹⁶. Enhanced weathering of such rocks supplies nutrients to oceans, influencing bioproductivity^17,18. For example, excess delivery of bioavailable P can lead to eutrophic conditions that deplete water column [O₂], causing widespread anoxia or euxinia¹⁹. Such conditions can be sustained over million-year timescales via further recycling of P from sediments overlain by anoxic or euxinic waters, as indicated by observations^20,21 and models^19,22 of the Cenomanian–Turonian OAE (OAE 2). Like the weathering of mafic rocks on land¹⁵, volcanism during mid-ocean-ridge formation contributes essential nutrients, including P, directly to the global ocean through submarine weathering¹⁴.

It is only by remaining ignorant of these major events in the long pre-'Creation Week' history of Earth, that creationists can continue to feel smug about a 'perfectly designed' Earth for them to live in because it feels like it in the tiny scrap of it of which they are familiar.

Unless it doesn't - during a hurricane, flood, earthquake, tornado or pandemic virus, that can always be blamed on one minority or another to reinforce the hate for the out-group that their cult encourages.

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