Refuting Creationism - Even More Signs of The Divine Malevolence's Obsessive Compulsive Disorder?

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Over 160,000 new virus species discovered by AI - The University of Sydney

This is the second paper today to show the apparent obsession creationism's putative designer has with creating viruses, if you believe that superstition.

The first paper dealt with the discovery that there are some 600 different viruses to be found on a used toothbrush and on the shower heads in US bathrooms; this one reports on a discovery that makes that finding pale into insignificance. It is the discovery, using the machine learning of AI, of 161,979 new viruses!

This is just tip of the iceberg as the authors say the method just scratches the surface of biodiversity and opens up a world of discovery with millions more to be discovered.

Refuting Creationism - Is Creationism's Divine Malevolence Sufferring from Obsessive-Compulsive Disorder?

Northwestern microbiologists found more than 600 viruses on samples collected from used toothbrushes and shower heads.

AI-Generated graphic (ChatGPT4o)

Structural model at atomic resolution of bacteriophage T4

By Dr. Victor Padilla-Sanchez, PhD https://www.drvictorpadillasanchez.com
Own work, CC BY-SA 4.0, Link

Viruses are teeming on your toothbrush, showerhead - Northwestern Now

Creationism's putative creator is nothing if not obsessive.

One of its obsessions appears to be designing ever-more exquisite ways to kill its creation as almost nothing in nature exists that doesn't have something that lives on or in it, often killing it in the process or at least weakening it in some way.

Its most visible obsession seems to be with designing beetles of which there are some 500,000 species with more being discovered almost daily. It's highly likely that there may be as many as a million different beetles in the world, many of which catch and devour other arthropods.

But it's in the field of virology that we find another obsession with designing variations on a general theme. Not only are there literally hundreds of thousands of viruses but every species has multiple variants - look at the number of different variants of the SARS-CoV-2 virus that have emerged since the initial wave of the COVID-19 pandemic!

Refuting Creationism - How Mars Became Unsuitable For Life As We Know It - 3 Billion Years Before 'Creation Week'

Artist's concept of an early Mars with liquid water (blue areas) on its surface.

NASA/MAVEN/The Lunar and Planetary Institute

self-portrait of NASA's Curiosity Mars rover

By NASA - http://photojournal.jpl.nasa.gov/catalog/PIA19920, Public Domain, Link

NASA: New Insights into How Mars Became Uninhabitable - NASA Science

The Middle Eastern Bronze Age pastoralists who made up the Hebrew creation myths that later found themselves bound up in a book declared to be the inerrant word of a god, were probably aware of the planet Mars.

Certainly, the Sumerians, Egyptians, Greeks and Romans were and even named it after one of their gods - Nergal, Her Dashur, Ares and Mars, respectively. Because of its red colour, it was associated with blood and, by extension, war and violence.

But of course, the authors of Genesis thought it was stuck to the dome over their small flat planet, so they assumed it was made during 'Creation Week' and so had as little knowledge of its history as they had of their own planet - i.e., none at all. Had they realised Mars had water forming oceans, lakes and rivers 3 billion years earlier (they didn't even have a word for a number so large), they could have made up a slightly more plausible creation myth, at least as far as a time-scale is concerned.

But of course, as a small red light stuck to the dome, they had no more idea than fly how it got there, why it looked red or what it could tell them about planetary orbits. Although they don't even give it a mentions, presumably they must have had some inkling that it was different to the other little lights as it 'wandered' over the undersurface of the dome, like some of the other little lights - magical mystery, probably involving angels or other magic spirits, no doubt.

But what was it exactly that changed Mars from being a wet planet, with an atmosphere and probably suitable for life to evolve on, to being a cold, dry, unsuitable, even hostile place, where life as we know it could not exist, certainly on its surface or as advanced multicellular organisms.

Refuting Creationism - Wind Dispersal of Seeds - 370 Million Years Before 'Creation Week'.

A fossil of the winged-seed, Alasemenia, sourced from the Jianchuan mine in Xinhang Town, China.

Image credit: Deming Wang (CC BY 4.0)

Figure 1

Fertile branches and seeds of Alasemenia tria gen. et sp. nov.
(a) Thrice dichotomous branch with a terminal ovule. Arrow indicating boundary between ovule and ultimate axis (PKUB21721a). (b, f, g, i) Once dichotomous branch with a terminal ovule (PKUB21781, PKUB23132, PKUB19338a, PKUB17899). (c) Twice dichotomous branch with a terminal ovule (PKUB19713a). (d, e) Ovule with three integumentary wings (PKUB19321, PKUB19316). (h) Ovule showing two integumentary wings (PKUB19282). (j, k) Ovule terminating short ultimate axis (PKUB23114, PKUB23129). Scale bars, 1 cm (a–c, h), 5 mm (d–g, i–k).

New seed fossil sheds light on wind dispersal in plants | For the press | eLife The problem creationists have is that so much of Earth's history happened before their cult's dogma says it was created by magic just 10,000 years ago.

In fact, 99.9975% of Earth's history occurred during that long pre-'Creation Week' period, that just about any scientific paper dealing with fossils casually refutes creationism.

In fact the entire fossil record refutes creationism because nowhere in it are fossils found without ancestors and the geological column simply doesn't contain the evidence of a whole range of modern species suddenly appearing. It shows exactly the opposite - species evolving and diverging from common ancestors with modern forms having intermediate forms between them and common ancestors with other species in the same clade.

There is a clear progression in the fossil record of plants, for example, from simple single-celled algae, through primitive terrestrial mosses and liverworts followed by ferns, and eventually the angiosperms with their flowers and seeds.

Within the angiosperms there is again a fossil record or two main functions:

1. Ferilisation of seeds, which included co-evolution between flowers and pollinators - bees, moths, birds, etc. - or wind pollination.
2. Dispersal of seeds - wind, birds, mammals, etc.

And each of those fossil records is matched by the co-evolution of the pollinators and the seed dispersers.

Tell me about wind seed dispersal in plants, when it evolved, etc. Wind seed dispersal, also known as anemochory, is a widespread adaptation in plants to ensure the spread of their seeds over large distances, increasing their chances of finding suitable environments for growth. This dispersal mechanism relies on wind to transport seeds that are often lightweight and have specialized structures to aid their movement through the air.

Key Features of Wind-Dispersed Seeds:

1. Lightweight: Wind-dispersed seeds are typically small and light, allowing them to be carried long distances.
2. Structures for Flight: Many of these seeds have adaptations like wings, hairs, or other structures that catch the wind. Examples include:
   • Pappus: In species like dandelions (Taraxacum), the seed has a parachute-like structure called a pappus.
   • Wings: In trees like maples (Acer), seeds have wing-like structures called samaras.
   • Tumbleweeds: Some plants, like Salsola spp., disperse seeds by breaking off entirely and rolling in the wind.

Evolution of Wind Seed Dispersal:
Wind dispersal is a relatively ancient mechanism in plants, evolving as plants colonized terrestrial habitats. The earliest land plants likely relied on wind to disperse spores before the evolution of seeds. Once seeds evolved, various adaptations for wind dispersal followed. This trait has evolved independently across many plant lineages, making it an example of convergent evolution. Some key evolutionary timelines include:

• Early Seed Plants: The gymnosperms, which appeared around 350 million years ago, often use wind for seed dispersal, as seen in conifers with winged seeds.
• Angiosperms: Flowering plants, which diversified during the Cretaceous (about 125 million years ago), also show multiple independent evolutions of wind dispersal traits. Many families of angiosperms, such as Asteraceae (the daisy family) and Poaceae (the grasses), have specialized wind-dispersal mechanisms.

Factors Driving the Evolution of Wind Dispersal:

• Open Habitats: Wind dispersal is particularly advantageous in open, windy environments such as grasslands, deserts, and mountainous regions.
• Resource Efficiency: Wind dispersal doesn't require the plant to invest energy in producing fleshy fruit to attract animals for seed dispersal, making it resource-efficient.
• Competition and Colonization: It allows plants to colonize new areas and reduce competition by spreading seeds far from the parent plant.

In conclusion, wind seed dispersal has evolved multiple times in both ancient and modern plant lineages, driven by the need to disperse seeds efficiently in open or windy environments. Its prevalence in diverse plant families highlights its evolutionary success.

And now a group of researchers have found the second-earliest known record of wind dispersal of seeds from roughly 360–385 million years ago, during the Late Devonian. The fossils were found in the Jianchuan mine in Xinhang Town, Anhui Province, China.

The team were led by Professor Deming Wang of the Key Laboratory of Orogenic Belts and Crustal Evolution, Department of Geology, Peking University, Beijing, China. Their findings are the subject of a paper in the on-line, open access journal, eLife, and are explained in an eLife press release:

New seed fossil sheds light on wind dispersal in plants

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Scientists have discovered one of the earliest examples of a winged seed, granting insight into the origin and early evolution of wind dispersal strategies in plants.

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The study, published today as the final Version of Record after previously appearing as a Reviewed Preprint in eLife, details the second-earliest known winged seed – Alasemenia – from the Late Devonian epoch, roughly 360–385 million years ago. The authors use what the editors call solid mathematical analysis to demonstrate that Alasemenia’s three-winged seeds are more adapted to wind dispersal than one, two and four-winged seeds.

Wind dispersal in plant seeds is a natural mechanism that allows plants to spread their seeds through the air to new areas. This helps reduce competition for resources, increasing the plant’s chances of survival. Examples of wind dispersal strategies include tumbleweeds, parachutes such as dandelions and milkweeds, and winged seeds like those of the maple tree, often called ‘helicopter’ seeds.

The earliest-known plant seeds date back to the Late Devonian epoch.

This period marks a significant evolutionary milestone in plant history, as they transitioned from spore-based reproduction, as with ferns and mosses, to seed-based reproduction. However, little is known about wind dispersal in seeds during this time, as most fossils lack wings and are typically surrounded by a protective cupule.

Professor Deming Wang, lead author
Key Laboratory of Orogenic Belts and Crustal Evolution
Department of Geology
Peking University, Beijing, China.

Cupules are cup-shaped structures that partly enclose seeds, much like in acorns or chestnuts (although the Devonian cupules do not share the same origin with these modern ones), and could be associated with other dispersal methods, such as water transport.

To better understand early wind dispersal mechanism, Wang and colleagues studied several seed fossils from the Late Devonian, sourced from the Jianchuan mine in Xinhang Town, Anhui Province, China. From this, they identified a new fossil seed, Alasemenia.

They first described the characteristics of Alasemenia by carefully analysing the fossil samples, including making slices to view the seed’s internal structures. They found that Alasemenia seeds are about 25–33 mm long and clearly lack a cupule, unlike most other seeds of the period. In fact, this is one of the oldest-known records of a seed without a cupule, 40 million years earlier than previously believed. Each seed is covered by a layer of integument, or seed coat, which radiates outwards to form three wing-like lobes. These wings taper toward the tips and curve outward, creating broad, flattened structures that would have helped the seeds catch the wind.

The team then compared Alasemenia to the other known winged seeds from the Late Devonian: Warstenia and Guazia. Both of these seeds have four wings – Guazia’s being broad and flat, and Warstenia’s being short and straight. They performed a quantitative mathematical analysis to determine which seed had the most effective wind dispersal. This revealed that having an odd number of wings, as in Alasemenia, grants a more stable, high spin rate as the seeds descend from their branches, allowing them to catch the wind more effectively and therefore disperse further from the parent plant.

Our discovery of Alasemenia adds to our knowledge of the origins of wind dispersal strategies in early land plants. Combined with our previous knowledge of Guazia and Warsteinia, we conclude that winged seeds as a result of integument outgrowth emerged as the first form of wind dispersal strategy during the Late Devonian, before other methods such as parachutes or plumes.

Pu Huang, senior author
Nanjing Institute of Geology and Paleontology
Chinese Academy of Sciences, Nanjing, China.

The three-winged seeds seen in Alasemenia during the Late Devonian would have subsequently been followed by two-winged seeds during the Carboniferous period, and then single-winged seeds during the Permian.

Professor Deming Wang.

Abstract
The ovules or seeds (fertilized ovules) with wings are widespread and especially important for wind dispersal. However, the earliest ovules in the Famennian of the Late Devonian are rarely known about the dispersal syndrome and usually surrounded by a cupule. From Xinhang, Anhui, China, we now report a new taxon of Famennian ovules, Alasemenia tria gen. et sp. nov. Each ovule of this taxon possesses three integumentary wings evidently extending outwards, folding inwards along abaxial side and enclosing most part of nucellus. The ovule is borne terminally on smooth dichotomous branches and lacks a cupule. Alasemenia suggests that the integuments of the earliest ovules without a cupule evolved functions in probable photosynthetic nutrition and wind dispersal. It indicates that the seed wing originated earlier than other wind dispersal mechanisms such as seed plume and pappus, and that three- or four-winged seeds were followed by seeds with less wings. Mathematical analysis shows that three-winged seeds are more adapted to wind dispersal than seeds with one, two or four wings under the same condition.

eLife assessment This useful study describes the second earliest known winged ovule without a capule in the Famennian of Late Devonian. Using solid mathematical analysis, the authors demonstrate that three-winged seeds are more adapted to wind dispersal than one-, two- and four-winged seeds. The manuscript will help the scientific community to understand the origin and early evolutionary history of wind dispersal strategy of early land plants.

https://doi.org/10.7554/eLife.92962.3.sa0

eLife digest
Many plants need seeds to reproduce. Seeds come in all shapes and sizes and often have extra features that help them disperse in the environment. For example, some seeds develop wings from seed coat as an outer layer, similar to fruits of sycamore trees that have two wings to help them glide in the wind.

The first seeds are thought to have evolved around 372-359 million years ago in a period known as the Famennian (belonging to the Late Devonian). Fossil records indicate that almost all these seeds were surrounded by an additional protective structure known as the cupule and did not have wings. To date, only two groups of Famennian seeds have been reported to bear wings or wing-like structures, and one of these groups did not have cupules. These Famennian seeds all had four wings.

Wang et al. examined fossils of seed plants collected in Anhui province, China, which date to the Famennian period. The team identified a new group of seed plants named the Alasemenia genus. The seeds of these plants each had three wings but no cupules. The seeds formed on branches that did not have any leaves, which indicates the seeds may have performed photosynthesis (the process by which plants generate energy from sunlight). Mathematical modelling suggested that these three-winged seeds were better adapted to being dispersed by the wind than other seeds with one, two or four wings. These findings suggest that during the Famennian the outer layer of some seeds that lacked cupules evolved wings to help the seeds disperse in the wind. It also indicates that seeds with four or three wings evolved first, followed by other groups of seed plants with fewer seed wings. Future studies may find more winged seeds and further our understanding of their evolutionary roles in the early history of seed plants.

Introduction
Since plants colonized the land, wind dispersal (anemochory) became common with the seed wing representing a key dispersal strategy through geological history (Taylor et al., 2009; Ma, 2009.1; McLoughlin and Pott, 2019). Winged seeds evolved numerous times in many lineages of extinct and extant seed plants (spermatophytes) (Schenk, 2013; Stevenson et al., 2015). Lacking wings as integumentary outgrowths, the earliest ovules in the Famennian (372–359 million years ago [Ma], Late Devonian) rarely played a role in wind dispersal (Rowe, 1997). Furthermore, nearly all Famennian ovules are cupulate, i.e., borne in a protecting and pollinating cupule (Prestianni et al., 2013.1; Meyer-Berthaud et al., 2018).

Warsteinia was a Famennian ovule with four integumentary wings, but its attachment and cupule remain unknown (Rowe, 1997). Guazia was a Famennian ovule with four wings and it is terminally borne and acupulate (devoid of cupule) (Wang et al., 2022). This paper documents a new Famennian seed plant with ovule, Alasemenia tria gen. et sp. nov. It occurs in Jianchuan mine of China, where Xinhang fossil forest was discovered to comprise in situ lycopsid trees of Guangdedendron (Wang et al., 2019.1). The terminally borne ovules are three-winged and clearly acupulate, thus implying additional or novel functions of integument. Based on current fossil evidence and mathematical analysis, we discuss the evolution of winged seeds and compare the wind dispersal of seeds with different number of wings.

Figure 2

Fertile branches and seeds of Alasemenia tria gen. et sp. nov.
(a–c) Once dichotomous branch with a terminal ovule (PKUB16876a, b, PKUB17767). a, b, Part and counterpart. (d, e) Part and counterpart, arrow showing the third integumentary wing (PKUB19322a, b). (f) Ovule on ultimate axis (PKUB21752). (g, h, k–m) Ovules lacking ultimate axis (PKUB16788, PKUB21631, PKUB16522, PKUB21647, PKUB21656). (i, j) Part and counterpart, showing limit (arrows) between nucellus and integument (PKUB19339a, b). (n) Four detached ovules (arrows 1–4) (PKUB19331). (o) Enlarged ovule in n (arrow 2), showing three integumentary wings (arrows). Scale bars, 1 cm (n), 5 mm (a–h, k–m, o), 2 mm (i, j).

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Figure 3

Seeds of Alasemenia tria gen. et sp. nov.
(a, b) Part and counterpart, enlarged ovule in Figure 1a (PKUB21721a, b). (c) Enlarged ovule in Figure 1c. (d) Counterpart of ovule in c (PKUB19713b). (e) Dégagement of ovule in d, exposing the base of the third integumentary wing (arrow). (f) Enlarged ovule in Figure 1d. (g, h) Enlarged ovule in Figure 2i and j, respectively. Scale bars, 5 mm (a–e), 2 mm (f–h).

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Figure 4 with 5 supplements

Transverse sections of seeds of Alasemenia tria gen. et sp. nov.
(a, b) Part and counterpart. (c–e) Sections of seed in a and b (at three lines, in ascending orders). Arrow in d indicating probable nucellar tip (Slide PKUBC17913-12b, 10a, 9b). (f, g) Part and counterpart. (h–k) Sections of seed in f and g (at four lines, in ascending orders) (Slide PKUBC19798-8b, 6b, 4a, 4b). (l, m) Part and counterpart. (n–r) Sections of seed in l and m (at five lines, in ascending orders), showing three wings departing centrifugally (Slide PKUBC17835-5a, 7b, 8b, 9a, 10a). (s, v, A), One seed sectioned. (t, u) Sections of seed in s (at two lines, in ascending orders) (Slide PKUBC18716-8b, 7a). (w–z) Sections of seed in v (at four lines, in ascending orders) (Slide PKUBC20774-7a, 6b, 3a, 3b). (B–E) Sections of seed in A (at four lines, in ascending orders), showing three wings departing centrifugally (Slide PKUB17904-5b, 4a, 4b, 3b). Scale bars, 2 mm (a, b, f, g, l, m, s, v, A), 1 mm (c–e, h–k, n–r, t, u, w–z, B–E).

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Figure 5

Reconstruction of two acupulate ovules with integumentary wings.
(a) Alasemenia tria with three wings distally extending outwards. (b), A. tria with one of three wings partly removed to show nucellar tip. (c) Guazia dongzhiensis with four wings distally extending inwards (Wang et al., 2022). Scale bars, 5 mm.

Deming Wang, Jiangnan Yang, Le Liu, Yi Zhou, Peng Xu, Min Qin, Pu Huang (2024)
Alasemenia, the earliest ovule with three wings and without cupule
eLife 13: RP92962. https://doi.org/10.7554/eLife.92962.3

Copyright: © 2024 The authors.
Published by eLife Sciences Publications Ltd. Open access.
Reprinted under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International license (CC BY 4.0)

And yet, despite this this daily refutation of creationism, the cult manages to stagger on, albeit shedding members as they reach the age of reason and realize they've neem fooled, and parasitic frauds like Ham and Kovind still cream off millions of dollars from their gullible and scientifically illiterate following in a desperate attempt to prove their inherited superstation gives them a better insight into the workings of the world around them than those clever-dicky, elitists scientists with their big words have.

Who needs facts and evidence, and all that bothersome learning when you have a mummy and daddy, and a preacher in a pulpit to tell you what to believe?

Trumpanzee News - Why Americans Would Be Mad To Allow Trump Back In The White House

From mass deportations to huge tariff hikes, here’s what Trump’s economic program would do to the US and Australia

With Kamala Harris's star beginning to wane after shining brightly for the first few weeks after she replaced Biden as the Democratic candidate in the 2024 presidential election, bookmakers are now giving odds of about 50:50 for a Trump win.

But what are the dangers for America and the rest of the world from having a criminal with an acute narcissistic personality disorder running the world’s largest economy, let alone the world's largest nuclear arsenal.

A criminal moreover who's idea of economic management is to lie, cheat and steal from anyone fool enough to lend him money, leave his subcontractors unpaid, then when he can fend off his creditors no longer, have himself declared bankrupt, leaving them to whistle for their money, then start over again with more borrowed money. He is the only business man ever to bankrupt a casino! How do you bankrupt a casino where the odds are stacked in your favour and people queue up to give you money!. His idea of a university is to charge large fees to students them leave them without tutors and pocket the money!

He would undoubtedly turn the Whitehouse back into the organized crime syndicate HQ it was last time he was there, and would revel in the immunity from accountability SCOTUS has granted him to commit whatever crimes he likes, and he can always pardon himself for any crimes and misdemeanors just to be on the safe side.

In the 2012 election against Hillary Clinton, Trump's team came close to arguing that it was safe to vote for him because he wouldn't keep his promises anyway. This time, it really would be better if he didn't. It would be even better if he didn't have the chance to keep them.

He has three populist planks to his platform, none of them intended to make America Great Again, and all three of them guaranteed to make Americans' poorer, and smaller both economically and in the eyes of the rest of the world. They are nothing more than populist appeals to the xenophobic, racist, white supremacist right in the USA, centred on his obsession with China, which is always pronounces in a characteristically exaggerated, deranged way, 'Chay-na!' They can be summed up in two words - xenophobic isolationism.

In the following article, reprinted from The Conversation under a Creative Commons license, Peter Martin, a Visiting Fellow at Crawford School of Public Policy, Australian National University, cites the non-partisan Peterson Institute for International Economics which says that Trump's package would "[do] more damage to the US economy than to any other in the world", but there are other world economies, not just the target, China, that would be damaged by them: The article is reformatted for stylistic consistency:

Silly Bible - More Evidence Of The Laughable Naivety Of The Bible's Primitive Authors

This image of the galaxy REBELS-25 was taken by the Atacama Large Millimeter/submillimeter Array (ALMA), an international facility co-owned by ESO. It shows how cold gas is distributed in the galaxy, and exhibits hints of an elongated bar structure at its centre.

Credit: ALMA (ESO/NAOJ/NRAO)/
L. Rowland et al.

This article is best read on a laptop, desktop or tablet

This image shows the motion of cold gas in the REBELS-25 galaxy as seen with the Atacama Large Millimeter/submillimeter Array (ALMA). Blue colouring indicates movement towards Earth and red indicates movement away from Earth, with a darker shade representing faster movement. In this case, the red-blue divide of the image shows clearly that the object is rotating, making REBELS-25 the most distant rotating disc galaxy ever discovered.

Credit: ALMA (ESO/NAOJ/NRAO)/L. Rowland et al.

Space oddity: Most distant rotating disc galaxy found | ESO

It looks like it's the turn of cosmologists to casually refute creationism by revealing the facts - normally the privilege of biologists and archaeologists who do so with almost every science paper they publish. But of course it would also be difficult for cosmologists to reveal anything about the cosmos that doesn't make those who described it as consisting of a small flat planet with a dome over it, look like anything other than ignorant simpletons who can't be taken seriously.

But of course, they were probably expert at being cattle-herding pastoralists, quite familiar with their few square miles of the Bronze Age Middle East; they just didn't know anything about science or history, so made up tales to fill the gap in their understanding.

Here for example is another cosmology paper showing just how old, immense and awe-inspiring the real Universe is, by reporting the discovery of a stable, rotating disc galaxy, rather like our own Milky Way galaxy, but from just 700 million years after the Big Bang. As such, REBEL-25 is the most distant rotating disc galaxy yet discovered. The discovery was made by an international team of astronomers led by cosmologists from Leiden University, The Netherlands, using data from the European Southern Observatory, Chile.

They have just published their findings in Monthly Notices of the Astronomical Society and announced it in a press release from the European Southern Observatory:

Silly Bible - How The Description of the Universe in Genesis was Laugably Naïve

This artist’s impression of a planet-forming disk surrounding a young star shows a swirling "pancake" of hot gas and dust from which planets form. Using the James Webb Space Telescope, researchers obtained detailed images showing the layered, conical structure of disk winds – streams of gas blowing out into space.

National Astronomical Observatory of Japan

Winds of change: James Webb Space Telescope reveals elusive details in young star systems | University of Arizona News

Source

I keep returning to the contrast between how the universe is described in Genesis and how it really is as described by science because it illustrates better than almost anything else in the Bible, the naivety and sheer ignorance of the authors. A creator god who wanted us to understand the magnificence of its creation would surely have done a better job of explaining it than to have described it as a small flat planet with a dome over it to keep the water above the sky out, with the sun, moon and stars as lights stuck to the dome.

This description is so far removed from reality that none of it can plausibly be described as allegorical or metaphorical, or even a simplistic description intended to inform simple, uneducated people incapable of understanding anything more complicated. It is simply and laughably wrong; but exactly what parochial pastoralists might think from their limited perspective.

And these same parochial, naïve people came up with the notion of gods to explain the world around them whose working were so mysterious as to look like magic - and magic requires a magician. Where better to locate that magician? Above the dome over the Earth, obviously.

And so religions were built on the best guesses of people who knew no better; people whose best guess was that the Universe consisted of a small flat planet with a dome over it to keep the water above the sky out; people who saw no contradiction in describing the creation of light before the creation of the source of light, or the creation of green plants before the sun!

But how could they, with no technology more complicated than a potter's wheel and the visual acuity of the human eye, possibly know what was really going on as they looked up at the 'little lights stuck to the dome'? How could they possibly have been aware that this Earth is in orbit round the sun, that the sun is but one of half a trillion suns in one of half a trillion galaxies, all existing in a vast, expanding universe in which more than 3000 new stars are being born every second, most of them with an accretion disc from which planets will eventually coalesce?

Had they done so, and had they told us about it, then, and only then, would the notion that a creator god was inspiring them to explain the magnificence of its creation be even a plausible explanation for how they knew that stuff. As it is, all we are left to explain is why they were so ignorant of reality that they needed to invent stories to fill the gaps in their understanding, and of course, the gods they created exactly fitted those gaps, just as todays gods are precisely tailored to fill the gaps in the understanding of ignorant people.

So, how do we know they got things so badly wrong?

Malevolent Design - How The Black Widow Spider's Toxins Harm Us Mammals

Latrodectus hesperus

By Ken-ichi Ueda - https://www.inaturalist.org/photos/121,
CC BY 4.0,Link

Latrodectus hesperus female with egg sac.

Scientists decode black widow spider venom

Black widow spiders have a cocktail of toxins, most of which are effective against their arthropod prey such as insects, but one of them, α-latrotoxin, is very effective against vertebrates, including humans, although even the smallest vertebrates don't normally feature in the black widow's diet.

So why did this toxin evolve?

Normally, a species which is capable of delivering a nasty, even lethal, bite to a threat, rather than to prey, evolves strategies for avoiding doing so, while warning that it could if it wanted to - rather like a creationists avoiding answering a question while pretending they could if they wanted to, only without the pretense. Most species do this with warning colours or, in the case of the rattlesnake, a warning rattle. This is because using venom against a threat might mean there isn't enough left if the next potential meal wanders by, so it's better to warn and threaten than to actually bite.

But not so the black widow, except for the strikingly marked European species, Latrodectus tredecimguttatus, and the South American, Latrodectus curacaviensis. If anything, the black widow is cryptocamoflaged to not be noticed in the dark places they inhabit.

Refuting Creationism - How Biologists Are Refining The Theory of Evolution, Not Abadonning It In Favour Of Creationist Superstition

This article is best read on a laptop, desktop or tablet

New Findings Supply Corrective to Evolutionary Hypothesis | University of Arkansas

In a highly mathematical, technical paper in PLOS Computational Biology, some of which is above my paygrade, two evolutionary biologists have shown that the mysterious apparent accelerations in the rate of evolution are actually due to statistical 'noise' and not a true change in the rate of evolution.

I've written this post about it not because it contains some interesting information about biological organisms or that long history of life on Earth that occurred before creationists believe their little god created a small, flat planet with a dome over it, but so creationists can see how badly they've been deceived by their cult leaders who have been telling them for the best part of half a century that mainstream biologists are about to abandon the Theory of Evolution any day now in favour of their childish superstition with its magical creation of species without ancestors.

Of course, to a simplistic, black vs white thinking creationist, any discovery that scientists might have been wrong about some precise detail or others can be presented as 'proof' that the entire body of science is wrong, but that's not how grown-up science works. To think otherwise is the equivalent of thinking having to detour round a parked car in a road means the satnav is broken.

Two computational biologists have recently published evidence that the appearance of accelerated rates of evolutionary change is due to statistical 'noise' in the data* What impact would this finding have on the basic principles of evolution? If the recent findings by computational biologists suggesting that accelerated rates of evolutionary change are largely due to statistical noise are accurate, this would have several important implications for the study of evolutionary biology. However, it is essential to clarify that these findings would likely not overturn the basic principles of evolution (such as natural selection, genetic drift, mutation, and gene flow), but they could impact how we interpret the tempo and mode of evolutionary change. Here are a few possible impacts:

1. Reevaluation of Evolutionary Rates
   
   • One key implication would be that observed patterns of rapid evolutionary change (in specific lineages or over short time periods) might need to be reinterpreted. If statistical noise has exaggerated the perception of these rates, what may have seemed like "punctuated bursts" of rapid evolution could, in fact, represent more gradual processes.
   • Some models of evolution, such as punctuated equilibrium (which argues that species experience long periods of stasis interrupted by short, rapid bursts of change), might need reconsideration. While this does not disprove punctuated equilibrium, it could require revisiting the evidence used to support it.
   
   
2. Statistical Models in Evolutionary Biology
   
   • The study would emphasize the importance of statistical rigor in evolutionary studies. Researchers would need to account for and reduce noise in their data more carefully to avoid overestimating rates of evolution.
   • This might lead to more robust methods for analyzing phylogenies, genomic sequences, and fossil data to ensure that we distinguish genuine signals of evolutionary change from artifacts produced by incomplete data or noisy statistical models.
   
   
3. Impact on Molecular Evolution Studies
   
   • Much of the evidence for accelerated evolution, especially at the molecular level, comes from comparative genomics, which measures changes in DNA sequences over time. If noise in the data has been overestimating these rates, it would affect interpretations of molecular clocks, the timing of divergence events, and the rates of adaptive evolution.
   • This could also alter our understanding of when certain key evolutionary transitions took place, such as the divergence between major groups (e.g., between humans and chimpanzees) or the timing of the origin of new traits.
   
   
4. Evolutionary Innovation and Adaptation
   
   • If rapid changes are less common than previously thought, this could affect theories about the mechanisms underlying evolutionary innovation. For example, the appearance of new traits or adaptations may occur more slowly than we assumed, and might more often involve cumulative changes rather than rapid shifts.
   • This might challenge the idea that certain environmental pressures (e.g., mass extinctions or rapid climate change) consistently trigger bursts of rapid adaptation.
   
   
5. Reevaluation of Case Studies
   
   • Many well-known examples of rapid evolution (e.g., the finches of the Galápagos, the peppered moth) might need closer scrutiny to ensure that the rates of change observed in these cases are genuine and not artifacts of noisy data.
   • Fossil and genomic data used to reconstruct evolutionary timelines might also need reevaluation in light of these findings, with the possibility that some inferred rates of change may need adjustment.
   
   
6. Broader Implications for Evolutionary Theory
   
   • The fundamental concepts of evolution—such as descent with modification, natural selection, and common ancestry—would remain intact, as these are supported by a vast range of evidence beyond the statistical models of evolutionary rates. However, the findings could influence the details of how we model evolutionary dynamics, especially over short timescales or within particular lineages.
   • The study could lead to a greater emphasis on distinguishing between "real" evolutionary signals and those that result from data imperfections, potentially improving the accuracy of evolutionary research going forward.

In summary, the basic principles of evolution are robust and unlikely to be overturned by this finding. However, it could lead to more refined methods in evolutionary biology, impacting how we interpret rates of change and the timing of evolutionary events, potentially leading to more accurate evolutionary histories.

The truth is that biologists have no doubt about the basic principle of evolutionary diversification from a common ancestor, driven by environmental selectors; their debate is only over the details of the processes and how they relate to environmental changes.

The scientists' work is explained in a University of Arkansas news release:

Unintelligent Design - How Creationism's 'Designer' Needs Plan B For When Plan A Fails To Mend Its Previous Design Blunder

Plants like Arabidopsis, seen here, have two options to ensure accurate chromosome division—a molecule called DDM1 and a process known as RNAi. If Arabidopsis loses one of these, it’s fine. But if it loses both, it’s in trouble.

Developmental defects of double, triple and quadruple mutants in RNA-dependent RNA polymerase (rdr1, rdr2, rdr6) and DNA methylation (ddm1) in floral organ identity, leaf shape and fertility (silique length).

Shimada, A., et al (2024)

Plants have a backup plan | Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory

The secret to being a good designer or planner is to always have a Plan B. I say that as a former emergency operations centre manager where the future is unpredictable, so I needed to keep as many options open as possible because, as I used to joke, my Plan B was to tear up Plan A and start again.

Now, you can play the percentages game, for example, I could be fairly sure town centres would be fairly busy around 11 pm, especially on a Friday and Saturday night, when in the UK the pubs close, or as we call it, 'chucking out time', and a lot of inebriated people would be out on the streets, fighting over available taxis, over girl/boyfriends or who had got served at the bar out of turn (queue-jumping is a big no-no in the UK).

I also knew from 17 years operational experience that most of the calls would require little more than smoothing ruffled feathers, running checks to exclude underlying medical problems and sending them on their way, so turnover time would be relatively short, and I would get a crew back fairly quickly.

Another peak would be around 1 am when the nightclubs closed, but with a few exceptions such as those the rest of the week would resemble a system in chaos where medical emergencies, traffic accidents and every other imaginable emergency occurred more or less randomly, with statistical patterns only being noticeable over time with a sufficiently large database.

Later on, I became the data analyst who looked for those patterns and used them to devise deployment plans to minimise average emergency response times, but that's another story.

Juggling acts were the daily routine for an emergency operations centre like mine, as we tried to maintain as much emergency cover as possible while getting help to people who needed it as quickly as possible. And you never knew you had made the right decision until it turned out not to have been the wrong one.

Our major handicap was of course being unable to accurately forecast the future, not just weeks or days ahead but hours and minutes. What we singularly lacked was omniscience for which educated guesses were a poor substitute.

So, to a creationist it might come as something of a shock to learn that their putative designer behaves like a designer/planner who can't foretell the future because, if nothing else, it is allegedly omniscient, and its designs are perfect. As such it shouldn't need a Plan B because Plan A will be perfectly designed for the precise future needs of the species. There should never be an occasion where it needs to tear up Plan A and starts again; it shouldn’t need to consult a large database to look for patterns then work out the probability of that pattern repeating itself and planning its responses accordingly, never knowing if it was the right plan until it turned out not to be.

And yet a team of researchers from Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory, New York, USA has found that the plant, Arabidopsis has a Plan B for when Plan A fails. Plan A is all about making the ramshackle, Heath Robinson process for ensuring mistakes in DNA replication get attended to. In a design which seems to be a characteristic of creationism putative intelligent [sic] designer, a shoddy process needs another layer of complexity to try to make it works, but even that fix breaks and the result of growth defects, sterility and, in many cases in animals, cancers or developmental disorders.

Refuting Creationism - Ancient Deluges - In Australia, 90,000 years Before 'Creation Week'

Pinnacles at Nambung National Park

Picture: Matej Lipar

Pinnacles at Nambung National Park

Iron nuggets in the Pinnacles unlock secrets of ancient and future climates - News at Curtin | Curtin University, Perth, Australia

For another o todays casual and incidental refutations of creationism, we have news about the climate in Western Australia, 90,000 years before creationists little god magicked up a small flat planet with a dome over it, according to the book of Bronze Age creation myths that creationists have mistaken for a science textbook.

Of course, when everything else about Earth's history occurred in the 99.9975% of its history that occurred before the mythical 'Creation Week', this will come as no surprise to anyone who is not functionally illiterate with the thinking ability of a slow 9year-old.

Unintelligent Designe - Creationism's Blundering Heath-Robinson 'Designer' Strikes Again - And Causes Cancer

Broken DNA and lncRNA repair mechanism

AI generated image (CHATGPT4o)

Intelligently designed apparatus for teaching mountaineers.

William Heath-Robinson

How Cells Recognize and Repair DNA Damage -

One thing you can depend on with creationism's putative designer is that there will never be a simple solution when there is a more complicated way to solve the problem it just created, and just like William Heath-Robinson, it will try to use pre-existing structures that were designed for an entirely different function, like a pile of books under the legs of a ladder to make it tall enough, and every piece of string holding things together will have knots in it.

And when we look beneath the superficial resemblance of design in, for example, a living cell, we find all manner of if-it-works-it'll-do solutions to problems, like the solution to the problem of breaking DNA that a team of scientists, led by Kaspar Burger, from Julius-Maximilians-Universität Würzburg (JMU) in Bavaria, Germany, have discovered.

The problem arises of course because the method for replicating DNA as cells divide is poorly designed and unnecessarily complicated in the first place. If the putative designer had devised a more sensible method for replicating cells in multicellular organisms than that used for replicating single cells where the whole genome needs to be replicated, many of the problems of erroneous copying wouldn't arise because only a small subset of the genome is needed for specialised cells.

Refuting Creationism - How Pterosaurs Became Flying Giants - 252-66 Million Years Before 'Creation Week'

Representation of pterosaurs

AI generated image (ChatGPT4o)

Life restoration of a group of giant azhdarchids, Quetzalcoatlus northropi, foraging on a Cretaceous fern prairie.
A juvenile titanosaur has been procured by one pterosaur, while the others stalk through the scrub in search of small vertebrates and other foodstuffs.

Witton MP, Naish D (2008)

Pterosaurs needed feet on the ground to become giants | News | University of Leicester

New research by scientists led by the University of Leicester has filled in another of those gaps much sought after by creationists as somewhere to fit their ever-shrinking little god. The gap was in our understanding of how and when the pterosaurs evolved to their gigantic size from their small beginnings.

Because this took place over the almost 190 million years that pterosaurs were around before going extinct, along with the dinosaurs, 66 million years ago, most creationists will probably have ignored it because it all happened so long before 'Creation Week'. Any reference to gaps in the fossil record that long ago will mean simultaneously holding two mutually exclusive views about the age of Earth, with all the painful cognitive dissonance that entails, so creationists frauds will most likely have kept quiet about it if they were even aware of it.

Refuting Creationism - Living Bacteria Sealed Inside 2 Billion-Year-Old Rock

Microbial cells stained green

© Y. Suzuki, S. J. Webb, M. Kouduka et al. 2024/ Microbial Ecology

2-billion-year-old rock home to living microbes | The University of Tokyo

The Bushveld Igneous Complex (BIC), South Africa.
This picture shows a very famous outcrop where nearly horizontal black and white layers are observed. The BIC made of layers of igneous rock in a basin shape, formed over a period of about 1 million years, after which it seems to have barely changed.

© Y. Suzuki.

In today's incidental rebuttal of creationist dogma, archaeologists have discovered living colonies of microbes sealed within cracks in 2-billion-year-old rocks from South Africa.

The microbes became sealed in the cracks by tightly-packed layers of clay so effectively creating sealed chambers from which nothing could escape and, more importantly, nothing could enter. They have survived over geological time by firstly having an extremely low metabolic rate, with a generation time measured in thousands, even millions of years, compared to surface-dwelling microbes with generation times in hours or minutes, and by utilising sulphates as their energy source.

What they demonstrate, apart from the fallacy of Earth only being made by magic 10,000 years ago, is that in a highly stable environment, a plentiful source of energy and the ability to recycle their dead with almost no loss of energy, there is no environmental pressure to evolve, so the microbes have remained virtually unchanged for hundreds of millions, even billions of years.

Refuting Creationism - How Ants Were Cultivating Crops 66 Million Years Before 'Creation Week'.

A lower-fungus-farming worker of the rare fungus-farming ant species Mycetophylax asper, collected in Santa Catarina, Brazil, in 2014, on its fungus garden.

Credit: Don Parsons.

Atta colombica queen

By Christian R. Linder - own photo, Barro Colorado Island, Panama (1999), CC BY-SA 3.0, Link

Ant Agriculture Began 66 Million Years Ago in the Aftermath of the Asteroid That Doomed the Dinosaurs | Smithsonian Institution

One of the 'uniquely human' abilities that creationists traditionally cite in support of their childish superstition that humans were magically created out of dirt as a species separate from other animals, is the fact that humans for the most part, indulge in agriculture - i.e., we grow plants as food - or at least other people do. Most of us in the developed economies buy their produce in shops.

a Like all their other claims of human exceptionalism, it's a nonsense fairy tale, of course. Humans have some unique characteristics that make them a distinct species, but then so does every other species, by definition. There is nothing materially different about humans that makes them subject to different laws of chemistry and physics than other species, of course.
And in respect of agriculture, we are far from unique - ants have been at it for about 66 million years - well before creationists imagine the entire Universe was magically created from nothing by a magic god made of nothing. But this is hardly surprising, since some 99.9975% of the history of life on Earth happened before creationism's legendary 'Creation Week'.

Refuting Creationism - How Endosymbiosis Evolved

Bacteria are injected into a fungus with an extremely fine tip. The bacteria migrate into the spore-forming tissue (yellow) and are passed on to the next generation.

Image: Sean Kilian

How a bacterium becomes a permanent resident in a fungus | ETH Zurich

Endosymbiosis is fundamental to multicellular life since all multicellular organisms are collections of eukaryote cells, which are themselves alliances of prokaryote cells i an endosymbiotic relationship.

It illustrates as well and any other evolved cooperative alliances how natural selection, which make genes look like they are relentlessly selfish and the deadly rivals of other alleles of the same gene, often results not in rivalry and competition but alliances and cooperation.

However, for one cell to enter another cell, take up residence in it and be transmitted vertically from one generation to the next, as must have happened with the earliest eukaryote cells, a number of barriers must be overcome, not the least of which is that a cell with a potentially parasitic organism inside it is either going to try to reject it or be less efficient, therefore less competitive, then uninfected cells and would tend to be eliminated in the struggle to succeed.

Unintelligent Design - Doing The Same Thing In Two Different Ways

Brassica fruticulosa

Photo: Sílvia Busoms, UAB.

Brassica fruticulosa

Photo: Sílvia Busoms, UAB.

Different adaptation strategies to saline soils identified in neighbouring populations of the same plant species - Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona - UAB Barcelona

Imagine you're a design engineer tasked to design part of a manufacturing process to be used in two different factories. You produce a solution which works in one factory, so what do you do for the second factory?

If you're creationism putative designer, you forget all about the solution that works, and you design a completely different method for the second factory. It would be far too simple to use the first method you designed for the second factory, obviously. It would be as though there is no communication between the two factories and no sharing of ideas or testing to see which method was the most efficient in terms of time, materials and labor. Each factory would work to its own methods, oblivious of anywhere else or any better solutions.

And that just what creationism's alleged creator appears to have done with two populations of a common coastal plant in Catalonia - a wild member of the cabbage family, Brassica fruticulosa - where different populations have adapted to soil salinity in two different ways.

What can you tell me about the plant Brassica fruticulosa, its distribution and adaptation to different soil conditions? Brassica fruticulosa, commonly known as Mediterranean cabbage, is a wild species within the Brassicaceae family. It is native to the Mediterranean region, where it thrives in a variety of habitats, including rocky, disturbed, and coastal areas. The species is highly adapted to different environmental conditions, including poor, dry, and calcareous soils, which is a key feature of its resilience.

Distribution:
Brassica fruticulosa is primarily found in Southern Europe, North Africa, and parts of the Middle East. Its distribution spans countries like Spain, Italy, Greece, Turkey, and Algeria, extending into coastal regions with Mediterranean climates.

Adaptation to Soil Conditions:

1. Drought Resistance: The plant is well-suited to dry and nutrient-poor soils, a characteristic of Mediterranean ecosystems. Its deep root system allows it to access water in arid environments, contributing to its drought tolerance.
2. Calcareous Soils: The species is adapted to alkaline soils, often thriving in limestone-rich areas. It can tolerate high pH levels, which would limit the growth of less adapted species.
3. Disturbed and Rocky Soils: Brassica fruticulosa also thrives in disturbed habitats, such as roadsides and rocky outcrops. Its ability to grow in these challenging environments shows its resilience to various soil types and disturbances.

This adaptation to different soil conditions is likely linked to its ecological strategy of thriving in marginal habitats, where competition from other plants is less intense.

This was discovered by three researchers from the Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona (UAB) Plant Physiology Lab, in collaboration with researchers from the University of Nottingham (UK), the Max Planck Institute for Biology (Germany), and Charles University in Prague (Czech Republic).

Their findings are the subject of a recent open access research paper in Proceedings of the National Academy of Science (PNAS) and a UAB news release.

Different adaptation strategies to saline soils identified in neighbouring populations of the same plant species

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Researchers from the Faculty of Biosciences have identified two divergent adaptive responses to soil salinity in populations of the same wild species found in the Catalonia’s coastal area, the Brassica fruticulosa, and have pinpointed the genes involved. The study will help to investigate the ways to improve resilience in agricultural species of the same plant family, such as rapeseed and mustard, in the face of a globally relevant stressor as is soil salinization.

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The study was recently published in Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences (PNAS) and is signed by researchers Sílvia Busoms, Glòria Escolà and Charlotte Poschenrieder from the UAB Plant Physiology Lab, in collaboration with researchers from the University of Nottingham (UK), the Max Planck Institute for Biology (Germany), and Charles University in Prague (Czech Republic).

Over the past few years, UAB researchers have worked in close collaboration with members of the University of Nottingham to develop a study model along the Catalan coast to understand the interaction between environmental factors such as salinity and the adaptation of wild populations of the Brassicaceae family. They developed several studies focused on populations of Arabidopsis thaliana, a model organism for biological research, but in this case, they focused on Brassica fruticulosa, a species genetically and morphologically closer to cultivated brassicas such as rapeseed (Brassica napus) and mustard (Sinapis alba).

This research has allowed them to demonstrate that in Catalonia coastal populations of B. fruticulosa use two different strategies to tolerate soil salinity: those from the north (Cap de Creus region) are able to restrict root-to-shoot sodium transport, preventing the damage of the aerial parts. In contrast, those from the centre accumulate sodium in the leaves, but they use efficient mechanisms of osmotic adjustment and compartmentalisation that allow them to tolerate high concentrations of this compound.

The fact that two populations of the same plant species located so close geographically have evolved differently under the same environmental conditions surprised the researchers.

“In general, in all organisms it is expected that species adapting to similar stressors also evolve in a similar way. In our case, however, although in the coastal habitats of the Catalan coast soil salinity can be considered the main selective agent, there must be other factors that have altered the recent evolutionary process of this Brassicaceae species.

Sílvia Busoms, lead author
Department of Plant Physiology
Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona, Barcelona, Spain

This divergence in plant populations so close to each other has rarely been described, not so much because it is an exception, but because in many cases the studies are carried out at the macro-scale.

The Tramontane wind may explain this divergence

In their study, researchers examined in detail the characteristics of the soils and the climatology of all the populations’ location. The only parameter that showed significant differences was evapotranspiration, which was higher in the north due to the Tramontane wind that regularly blows there.

When there is high evapotranspiration, plants absorb more water and at the same time more sodium if they do not have mechanisms to exclude it. Therefore, the strategies used by the plants of the central coastal areas may be insufficient in the conditions of the northern coast. In the study we hypothesise that although they are neighbouring populations, the northern B. fruticulosa evolved differently in order to tolerate both high salinity levels and high evapotranspiration.

Charlotte Poschenrieder, co-author Department of Plant Physiology
Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona, Barcelona, Spain

To characterise the genetic basis of the two adaptive strategies identified, researchers first created the reference genome of B. fruticulosa, which will contribute to the expansion of the catalogue of reference genomes of eukaryotic species from the Catalan-speaking territories (within the Earth Biogenome Project) and will allow further research with this species. Subsequently, the sequencing of 18 populations and the subsequent genetic and transcriptomic analyses validated the two strategies observed and allowed researchers to propose candidate genes involved in the mechanisms of salinity tolerance.

Salinity is a threat to the planet's agricultural soils and its consequences are greater when it affects impoverished soils such as those found in the Mediterranean basin. A better understanding of the mechanisms of salt tolerance used by plants living there and which have adapted to these conditions is essential to improve the resilience of cultivars that must adapt to the new environmental conditions. “This study, therefore, establishes B. fruticulosa as a promising source of desirable alleles, and the population diversity present in Catalonia as a powerful model for the study of adaptations to saline soils,” researchers conclude.

Original article:

Silvia Busoms, Ana C. da Silva, Glòria Escolà and Levi Yant.
Local cryptic diversity in salinity adaptation mechanisms in the wild outcrossing Brassica fruticulosa.
September 24, 2024. Proc Natl Acad Sci. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.2407821121

Significance
One might expect that closely related populations of a given species should adapt to the same environmental stressor in the same way due to genetic or physiological constraints. However, this is not commonly tested due to practical limitations. Here, we show that, even at the level of neighboring populations, contrasting adaptive strategies control adaptive responses to high coastal salinity in Brassica fruticulosa, a close wild relative of many crops of worldwide importance. This indicates multiple options for engineering an agriculturally crucial adaptation: soil salinization. These results will be of interest to not only those studying fundamental mechanisms of adaptation, but also resilience improvement in Brassica species.

Abstract
It is normally supposed that populations of the same species should evolve shared mechanisms of adaptation to common stressors due to evolutionary constraint. Here, we describe a system of within-species local adaptation to coastal habitats, Brassica fruticulosa, and detail surprising strategic variability in adaptive responses to high salinity. These different adaptive responses in neighboring populations are evidenced by transcriptomes, diverse physiological outputs, and distinct genomic selective landscapes. In response to high salinity Northern Catalonian populations restrict root-to-shoot Na⁺ transport, favoring K⁺ uptake. Contrastingly, Central Catalonian populations accumulate Na⁺ in leaves and compensate for the osmotic imbalance with compatible solutes such as proline. Despite contrasting responses, both metapopulations were salinity tolerant relative to all inland accessions. To characterize the genomic basis of these divergent adaptive strategies in an otherwise non-saline-tolerant species, we generate a long-read-based genome and population sequencing of 18 populations (nine inland, nine coastal) across the B. fruticulosa species range. Results of genomic and transcriptomic approaches support the physiological observations of distinct underlying mechanisms of adaptation to high salinity and reveal potential genetic targets of these two very recently evolved salinity adaptations. We therefore provide a model of within-species salinity adaptation and reveal cryptic variation in neighboring plant populations in the mechanisms of adaptation to an important natural stressor highly relevant to agriculture.

Today’s accumulation of high-profile cases detailing repeated evolution capture the fascination of biologists. Independently evolved adaptive coloring shifts in mammals and insects, defensive armor in fish, and serpentine and altitude adaptation in plants: these all present not only additional evidence for candidate mechanisms underlying adaptations, but also an optimistic outlook toward “predicting” the course of evolution and inspiring expositions for the public (1–6). Given these iconic cases, an expectation may arise that even at the functional level, neighboring populations of the same species should, due to genetic or developmental constraints and mutation limitation, share evolved strategies of adaptation to the same stressors (7). The logical extension is that natural selection might be expected to predictably drive the origin and maintenance of adaptations at strategic or mechanistic levels. However, this idea has not been sufficiently tested due to restraints on study systems, sampling, resolution, and scale (8). We thus lack a clear understanding of how often an expectation of uniform or repeatable species-wide adaptation strategies is violated in favor of diversity even within single species.

Here, we test this expectation by taking a “hyperlocal” approach in the study of plant adaptation to coastal stressors, focusing on adaptation to high coastal salinity in a strip of coastline in Catalunya, Northern Spain. Previous work on local adaptation of Arabidopsis thaliana in this region detailed geographically and temporally fine-scale adaptive variation in fitness-related traits across environmental salinity gradients, even at the scale of a few kilometers (9, 10). This region is characterized by a positive gradient of soil salinity from inland to the coast, shaping plant species communities and driving the evolution of salinity tolerance mechanisms at the local population- (deme-) level (11). Plant evolutionary responses to these conditions have been observed even in the selfer A. thaliana at fine (3 to 5 km) scale, resulting in functionally adaptive variation (12). Functional confirmation of this is evidenced by selective sweep of a hypomorphic ion transporter HKT1;1, which modulates Na+ leaf concentrations in response to rapid (monthly) temporal and spatial variation in rainfall and soil salinity (9).

Unfortunately, work in A. thaliana has two major limitations: first, due to its overwhelmingly selfing reproductive mode, relative to its outcrossing relatives A. thaliana has 10-fold lower genetic diversity and high rates of spontaneous, population-specific mutations (13). This low diversity also has important consequences in respect to increased homozygosity and effective population size, resulting in genetic drift, reduced effective recombination rates, genomic background effects, and the fixation of maladaptive alleles (reviewed in ref. 14). Second, Arabidopsis is substantially divergent from important Brassica crops, limiting the translational potential of discoveries in this otherwise convenient lab model. Wild outcrossing Brassicas, on the other hand, harbor higher levels of genetic diversity, directly facilitating studies of adaptation (15). Motivated by these considerations, we searched for wild Brassicaceae species with contrasting, recently evolved (within-species) phenotypes in complex coastal adaptations, focusing specifically on salinity tolerance. This resulted here in the identification of a model for local adaptation to coastal salinity, Brassica fruticulosa, and allows us to test hypotheses regarding the scale of local adaptation to high coastal salinity.

The genus Brassica belongs to the Brassicaceae (mustard) family and contains nearly 100 species, many of which are grown globally as vegetables like cabbage, broccoli, kale, and radish, as mustards, as oil crops (placing 3rd after palm and soy), and as fodder for animal feed (16). Brassicas are widely proficient at adapting to new habitats due to recent and recurrent polyploidy events, hybridization, and plastic genomes. These characteristics also make them great targets for genetic manipulation to further enhance resilience (17).

Here, we first perform a large-scale, genus-wide natural variation survey of diverse, wild outcrossing Brassicas in coastal Northeast Spain, eventually testing six candidate species for within-species adaptation to high salinity. From these, we identify and develop one particularly promising model of within-species variation in adaptation to extreme salinity and complex coastal stressors, B. fruticulosa. First described in 1792 by Cirillo (18), B. fruticulosa has not yet been recognized as harboring population-specific salinity adaptation. This has been a missed opportunity, as B. fruticulosa is closely related to Brassica rapa (19, 20) and shares many affinities with this global crop. We then assemble the B. fruticulosa genome using Oxford Nanopore long read sequencing polished with Illumina short reads, and sequence 90 individuals from 18 populations (nine coastal, nine inland) contrasting in salinity and soil parameters defined by ionome levels in leaves and soil in the root space of every individually sequenced wild plant. Using transcriptome data of leaves and roots, we reveal divergent adaptive strategies in response to high salinity in neighboring plant populations. We then perform common garden, physiological, and ion homeostasis experiments to detail these different strategies that evolved in closely neighboring adapted plant populations. Finally, we perform environmental association analysis (EAA) (with soil ionome as phenotype) and genome scans by ecotype to seek a genomic basis of divergent adaptative strategies to high salinity in neighboring B. fruticulosa populations. Taken together, these experiments reveal contrasting adaptive responses to extreme salinity, at the local scale, differing mechanistically at the scale of kilometers.

Fig 6.

Overview of the contrasting salinity tolerance strategies of the North and Central B. fruticulosa coastal metapopulations. Hypothetical model of genes, ion transport, and signaling pathways involved in salinity tolerance mechanisms. Gene symbols are shown in bold letters. Ion fluxes are indicated with black arrows. Gene activation/repression and molecule increase/decrease are indicated with red arrows. Star-framed symbols denote signaling pathways and hormone molecules are circled in green. “ST” = Salt tolerant.

This example is interesting in that it shows the process of allopatric speciation in progress even though the two populations are still regarded as the same species. It's not clear from this paper whether the two population can or do interbreed, but if they do, what would be the consequences for the hybrids? Depending on the mode of inheritance, the offspring's genes could express in three different ways:

1. Adapted like the northern population.
2. Adapted like the southern population.
3. Adapted like both populations.

In the case pf 1 and 2, 50% of the offspring would be maladapted for the local conditions and in the case of 3, it would be adapted for neither and could be non-viable. We can exclude any advantage from being adapted for both locations otherwise there would not be two different populations since they would both carry the same dual adaptation.

So, hybridization would be wasteful with reduced survival of the hybrids. This is environmental pressure to establish barriers to hybridization because plants that don't hybridize will tend to produce more successful offspring than those which do.

From an intelligent [sic] design perspective, this example of doing the same thing in two different ways makes no sense as the work of the same designer. However, given that there is no mechanism for isolated populations to share information and make informed decisions about the best way to adapt to local conditions, then ensure they evolved that way, this makes perfect sense from an evolutionary perspective.

Again, the detail behind a superficial appearance of designs reveals that there was no intelligence involved in the process; instead, the process was a mindless utilitarian process that produced two different solutions to the same problem.